United States of America. 261,000,000 (1994 US Census Bureau); 1,900,000 American Indians, Eskimos, and Aleuts, not all speaking indigenous languages (1990 census). Literacy rate 95% to 99%. Also includes Arabic 3,000,000, Chinese 1,645,000, from the Philippines 1,405,000, South Asians 634,000, speakers of other African, Asian, European, Latin American, and Pacific languages. Approximately 1,000,000 Gypsies use a variety of Romani as first or second language (1980 census). Information mainly from OIEL, SIL 1996. Christian, secular, Jewish, Muslim. Blind population 500,000. Deaf population nearly 2,000,000 (1988). Deaf institutions: many. Data accuracy estimate: A1, A2. The number of languages listed for USA is 213. Of those, 176 are living languages, 2 are second languages without mother tongue speakers, and 35 are extinct.
ABNAKI-PENOBSCOT [ABE] 20 in both countries, all aged speakers (1991 M. Krauss) out of 1,800 population including Canada (1982 SIL). 1 speaker of Eastern Abenaki, fewer than 20 of Western Abenaki (1992 OIEL). Near Bangor, Maine (Penobscot). Abnaki in Canada. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Dialects: WESTERN ABNAKI (ABENAKI, ABENAQUI, ST. FRANCIS), PENOBSCOT (EASTERN ABNAKI). Dictionary. Bible portions 1844. Nearly extinct.
ACHUMAWI (ACHOMAWI, PITT RIVER) [ACH] 10 elderly speakers out of 800 in the ethnic group (1982 SIL), The 1990 census reports 81 speakers. Northeastern California. Hokan, Northern, Karok-Shasta, Shasta-Palaihninan, Palaihninan. Originally there were nine dialects. Nearly extinct.
AFRO-SEMINOLE CREOLE (AFRO-SEMINOLE, SEMINOLE, BLACK SEMINOLE) [AFS] Bracketville, Texas; Wewoka, Oklahoma; and El Nacimiento, Coahuila, Mexico. Creole, English based, Atlantic, Eastern, Northern. Dialects: TEXAS, OKLAHOMA, MEXICO. Separated from coastal Sea Islands Creole between 1690 and 1760. Similar to Sea Islands Creole of USA and Bahamas Creole; 90% lexical similarity with Sea Islands Creole. Speakers use English or Spanish as second language. Only older speakers in Mexico.
AHTENA (ATNA, AHTNA, COPPER RIVER) [AHT] 21 speakers (1990 census) out of 600 population (1977 SIL). Copper River and adjacent areas in south central Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tanaina-Ahtna. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or over. There is a growing interest in the language among the population. Bilingual in English. Nearly extinct.
ALABAMA [AKZ] 256 speakers (1990 census), out of an ethnic group of 500 to 600 (1990 Heather Hardy). Alabama-Coushatta Reservation near Livingston in southeastern Texas. Muskogean, Eastern. Less than 50% cognate with Koasati. No speakers left in Oklahoma. Speakers are bilingual in English.
ALEUT [ALW] 90 speakers in USA on Atka Island. There may also be speakers at Nikolski, population. 1,129 speakers according to 1990 census. 2,000 in the ethnic group in USA (1977 SIL). In Siberia, about 10 vigorous speakers, all over 50 years old; others are semi-speakers, all over 40 years old, out of 500 population (1979 census). 52 total or more. Western Aleut on Atka Island (Aleutian Chain) and Commander Islands (Russia); Eastern Aleut on eastern Aleutian Islands, Pribilofs, and Alaskan Peninsula. Eskimo-Aleut, Aleut. Dialects: WESTERN ALEUT (ATKAN, ATKA, ATTUAN, UNANGANY, UNANGAN), EASTERN ALEUT (UNALASKAN, PRIBILOF ALEUT), . All but 4 speakers can speak English well. Difficult access in Alaska. Many school texts have been produced. Dictionary. "Copper Island Aleut" is a mixed Aleut-Russian language, or pidgin, spoken on Mednyj Island (finite verb morphology, kinship terms, acculturational words and some adverbs come from Russian; non-finite verb morphology, most of the lexicon and structure come from Aleut. Bible portions 1840-1903. Survey needed.
AMERAX [AEX] Unclassified. Spoken by Neo-Muslims in prisons. It may have Arabic influences (J M. Cowan 1990). Reported to not have mother tongue speakers. Muslim. Second language only. No mother tongue speakers.
AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE (ASL, AMESLAN, THE LANGUAGE OF THE DEAF) [ASE] 100,000 to 500,000 primary users (1986 Gallaudet U.) out of nearly 2,000,000 profoundly deaf persons in USA (1988); 0.8% of the USA population; 15,000,000 hard of hearing persons in the USA (1989 Sacks). Reported to be the third largest language in the USA (1993 Honolulu Advertiser). Also used in varying degrees in Canada, Philippines, Ghana, Nigeria, Chad, Burkina Faso, Gabon, Zaire, Central African Republic, Cote d'Ivoire, Mauritania, Kenya, Madagascar, Benin, Togo, Zimbabwe, Singapore, Hong Kong. Deaf sign language. Dialect: BLACK AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE. Used since 1817. The average deaf person graduates from high school with 12th grade reading level in ASL; 3rd or 4th grade reading level in English. Sign language interpreters provided in court, for college students, at important public events, in job training, at social services programs, in mental health service programs, some instruction for parents of deaf children, many sign language classes for hearing people. There is an organization for sign language teachers. Used on some TV programs. ASL is different from 'English on the Hands' (Signed English, Siglish). There are several systems of manually coded English, including different ones in different countries. Also several systems called Pidgin Signed English. ASL has 43% lexical similarity with French Sign Language in an 872-word list. Black American Sign Language developed in segregated schools in the south. It contains much sign vocabulary not in ASL and some different grammatical structure. Pidgin Signed English is taught in schools in the USA rather than ASL. Bible portions 1982-1987. Work in progress.
ANGLOROMANI (ENGLISH ROMANI, ROMANI ENGLISH, ROMANICHAL, ROMNIS) [RME] 100,000 or fewer in North America; 40,000 to 60,000 in United Kingdom; 5,000 in Australia; 145,000 in all countries. Indo-European, Germanic, West, North Sea, English. A variety of English with heavy Romani lexical borrowing. A Gypsy language. Selections 1979. Work in progress.
APACHE, JICARILLA [APJ] 812 speakers (1990 census), out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL). Northern New Mexico, area of Dulce. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Apachean, Navajo-Apache, Eastern Apache. Most adults speak the language. Many young adults may prefer English. Some children may speak the language, many can understand it, but tend to prefer English. Survey needed.
APACHE, KIOWA [APK] 18 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,000 population (1977 SIL). Western Oklahoma, Caddo County. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Apachean, Kiowa Apache. Nearly extinct.
APACHE, LIPAN [APL] 10 speakers or fewer out of 100 population (1977 SIL). New Mexico, Mescalero Reservation. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Apachean, Navajo-Apache, Eastern Apache. Nearly extinct.
APACHE, MESCALERO-CHIRICAHUA [APM] 1,800 speakers out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL); 279 Chiricahua speakers (1990 census). Mescalero Reservation, New Mexico. A small number of Chiricahua at Ft. Sill, Oklahoma. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Apachean, Navajo-Apache, Eastern Apache. Dialects: CHIRICAHUA, MESCALERO. Language use is vigorous in New Mexico. In Oklahoma most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Dictionary. Survey needed.
APACHE, WESTERN (COYOTERO) [APW] 12,693 speakers (1990 census), including 303 San Carlos. East central Arizona, several reservations. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Apachean, Navajo-Apache, Western Apache-Navajo. Dialects: WHITE MOUNTAIN, SAN CARLOS, CIBECUE, TONTO. Language use is vigorous. Dictionary. NT 1966. Bible portions 1958.
ARAPAHO (ARRAPAHOE) [ARP] 1,038 speakers (1990 census), out of 5,000 population (1977 SIL). Wind River Reservation, Wyoming, and associated with the Cheyenne in western Oklahoma. Algic, Algonquian, Plains, Arapaho. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1903.
ARIKARA (ARIKARI, ARIKARIS, ARIKAREE, REE, RIS) [ARI] 90 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,000 population (1977 SIL). Fort Berthold Reservation, North Dakota. Caddoan, Northern, Pawnee-Kitsai, Pawnee. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Arikara instructional material has been published for use in a language teaching program.
ASSINIBOINE (ASSINIBOIN, HOHE) [ASB] 150 to 200 fluent speakers over 40 years old, most over 60, out of 3,500 population including Canada (1986 SIL). Fort Belknap and Fort Peck Reservations, Montana. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Mississippi Valley, Dakota. Closely related to Stoney. English is spoken extensively.
ATAKAPA [ALE] No speakers left out of a few individuals in the ethnic group (1977 SIL). Southwestern Louisiana. Gulf. Extinct.
ATSUGEWI [ATW] 4 elderly speakers, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe), out of an ethnic group of 200 (1977 SIL). Northeastern California. Hokan, Northern, Karok-Shasta, Shasta-Palaihninan, Palaihninan. There may be no speakers left (1982). Nearly extinct.
BILOXI [BLL] Lower Mississippi Valley. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Southeastern, Biloxi-Ofo. Extinct.
BLACKFOOT (PIKANII) [BLC] 1,062 speakers in USA including 4 monolinguals (1990 census); 9,000 total speakers out of 15,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Blackfeet Reservation, Montana. Algic, Algonquian, Plains. Dialects: PIEGAN, BLOOD. In some Canadian locations Blackfoot remains the principal means of communication for older adults. In USA most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1890-1980.
CADDO (KADO, CADDOE, KADOHADACHO) [CAD] 141 speakers, including 6 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 1,800 population (1977 SIL). Western Oklahoma, Caddo County. Formerly in northeastern Texas, extending into southwestern Arkansas. Caddoan, Southern. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. The tribes are Cahinnio, Hasinai, Kadohadacho, Nanatsoho, Upper Nasoni, Upper Natchitoches, Upper Yatasi. Related to Pawnee, Wichita, and two extinct languages: Kitsai and Adai. Bilingual in English.
CAHUILLA [CHL] 35 speakers (1990 census), out of 800 population (1977 SIL). Southern California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Takic, Cupan, Cahuilla-Cupeno. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Nearly extinct.
CATAWBA [CHC] Several speakers left (1996), out of ethnic population of 500 (1977 SIL). Near Rock Hill, northern South Carolina. Siouan, Catawba. There were several dialects. Related to Woccon. Nearly extinct.
CAYUGA [CAY] 10 speakers in USA (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 360 in Canada (1991 Kinkade) out of 3,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Cattaraugus Reservation, western New York, and formerly in northeastern Oklahoma. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Seneca-Onondaga, Seneca-Cayuga. In the USA, only a few elderly speakers are left; in Canada there are also some middle-aged speakers. Bilingual in English.
CHEHALIS, LOWER [CEA] 5 or fewer speakers (1990 M.D. Kinkade). Southwestern coast of Washington. Salishan, Tsamosan, Inland. All speakers are elderly. Nearly extinct.
CHEHALIS, UPPER (CHEHALIS) [CJH] 2 or fewer speakers (1990 M.D. Kinkade and 1990 census) out of a population of 200 (1977 SIL). Washington, south of Puget Sound. Salishan, Tsamosan, Inland. A separate language from Lower Chehalis. Not to be confused with Halkomelem on the Chehalis River in British Columbia. Bilingual in English.
CHEROKEE (TSALAGI, TSLAGI) [CER] 22,500 speakers, including 14,000 speakers out of 70,000 population on Oklahoma rolls (1986 Durbin Feeling, Cherokee Nation, OK); 8,500 in North Carolina. 11,905 speakers including 130 monolinguals; 308,132 ethnic Cherokee (1990 USA Census Bureau). Eastern and northeastern Oklahoma and Cherokee Reservation, Great Smokey Mts., western North Carolina. Iroquoian, Southern Iroquoian, Cherokee. Dialects: ELATI (LOWER CHEROKEE, EASTERN CHEROKEE), KITUHWA (MIDDLE CHEROKEE), OTALI (UPPER CHEROKEE, WESTERN CHEROKEE, OVERHILL CHEROKEE), OVERHILL-MIDDLE CHEROKEE. The Elati dialect is extinct. Language use is vigorous in some Oklahoma communities, elsewhere some younger ones prefer English. Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). 15% to 20% can read Cherokee, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Dictionary. Grammar. Christian, traditional religion. NT 1850-1951. Bible portions 1829-1953. Work in progress.
CHETCO [CHE] 5 speakers or fewer (1962 Chafe) out of possible 100 population (1977 SIL). Southern coast, Oregon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, Oregon, Tolowa-Galice. Nearly extinct.
CHEYENNE [CHY] 1,721 speakers (1990 census), out of 5,000 population (1987 SIL). Northern Cheyenne Reservation, southeastern Montana; associated with Arapaho in western Oklahoma. Algic, Algonquian, Plains. In Montana most adults speak the language but many younger ones prefer English. In Oklahoma most speakers are middle aged or older. 50% to 100% literate. NT 1934. Bible portions 1902-1986. Work in progress.
CHICKASAW [CIC] 1,000 or fewer, most over 40 years old (1987 Munro and Willmond). Principally in south central Oklahoma, from Byng or Happyland (near Ada) in the north, and from Davis or Ardmore in the west to Fillmore and Wapanucka in the east. Some in Los Angeles, California. Muskogean, Western. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Recent reports indicate that Choctaw speakers find Chickasaw to be unintelligible. Dictionary. Survey needed.
CHINOOK (LOWER CHINOOK) [CHH] No speakers out of possible 300 population (1977 SIL). Lower Columbia River, Oregon and Washington. Penutian, Chinookan. Dialects: KLATSOP (TLATSOP), CLACKAMA. Typology: SVO, VSO. Extinct.
CHINOOK WAWA (CHINOOK JARGON, CHINOOK PIDGIN, TSHINUK WAWA) [CRW] 17 speakers in USA (1990 census); possibly 100 speakers including Canada, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe). Pidgin, Amerindian. Formerly used along the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska, between Indian and white, and between speakers of different languages. All the speakers are now probably scattered. Trade language. Bible portions 1912. Nearly extinct.
CHITIMACHA [CHM] No speakers out of 300 population (1977 SIL). Southern Louisiana. Gulf. Extinct.
CHOCTAW [CCT] 9,211 speakers including 80 monolinguals (1990 census) out of 25,000 population (1987 SIL). Ethnic group: 43,000 in Oklahoma, including 20,000 around Battiest, 12% of McCurtain County (1995 Robert S. Williams). The 1990 census reported 3,467 speakers in the Choctaw area of Oklahoma, but more people are registering with the BIA now (R.S. Williams). Principally in southeastern Oklahoma (McCurtain County) and east central Mississippi. Some in Louisiana. Muskogean, Western. Language use is vigorous in Mississippi. In Oklahoma speakers are 24 years old and older. The Houma are 12,000 racially mixed descendents of a Choctaw subgroup in southern Louisiana who speak 'broken French', and no longer speak Choctaw. 75% to 100% literate. Recent reports indicate that Choctaw speakers find Chickasaw to be unintelligible. NT 1848. Bible portions 1836-1993. Work in progress.
CHUMASH [CHS] No speakers out of a possible 100 population (1977 SIL). Southern California coast near Santa Barbara. Hokan, Salinan-Seri. Extinct since 1965. Inherently unintelligible varieties formerly spoken included Obispeño, Ineseño, Purisimeño, Barbareño, Ventureño, and Island Chumash (Isleño).
CLALLAM (KLALLAM, S'KLALLAM, NA'KLALLAM) [CLM] 5 speakers (1990 census). Washington, northeastern Olympic Peninsula. Salishan, Central Salish, Straits. All speakers are reported to be elderly. Nearly extinct.
COCOPA (KIKIMA, CUCAPÁ, COCOPAH, KWIKAPA, DELTA RIVER YUMAN) [COC] 321 speakers including 6 monolinguals in the USA (1990 census); 178 in Mexico (1991 Garza and Lastra); 500 total. Lower Colorado River south of Yuma, Arizona. The majority live in Baja California, Mexico. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Delta-Californian. Language use is vigorous in the USA. Bible portions 1972. Work in progress.
COEUR D'ALENE [CRD] 40 speakers (1990 census), out of a population of 800 (1977 SIL). Northern Idaho, Coeur d'Alene Reservation. Salishan, Interior Salish, Southern. Nearly extinct.
COLUMBIA-WENATCHI (COLUMBIAN, WENATCHEE-COLUMBIA) [COL] 75 or fewer speakers (1990 M.D. Kinkade) out of a possible population of 500 (1977 SIL). 39 Columbia speakers (1990 census). North central Washington, Colville Reservation. Salishan, Interior Salish, Southern. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
COMANCHE [COM] 854 speakers including 7 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 6,000 population (1977 SIL). Western Oklahoma. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Numic, Central. Closely related to Shoshoni, Panamint. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions 1958.
COOS (HANIS) [COS] 1 or 2 speakers all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe) out of a possible 250 population (1977 SIL). Southern Oregon coast. Penutian, Oregon Penutian, Coos. Possibly extinct. Nearly extinct.
COQUILLE (UPPER COQUILLE, MISHIKHWUTMETUNEE) [COQ] Probably no speakers left (1977 SIL). Southwestern Oregon, formerly on upper Coquille River. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, Oregon, Tolowa-Galice. Extinct.
COWLITZ (LOWER COWLITZ) [COW] Possibly 2 speakers remaining from a population of about 200 (1990 M.D. Kinkade). Southwestern Washington. Salishan, Tsamosan, Inland. Nearly extinct.
CREE, WESTERN [CRP] 35,000 total or more speakers out of 53,000 or more population including Canada (1982 SIL); 1,070 speakers in USA (1990 census). North central Montana. Majority in Canada. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Dialects: WOODS CREE, PLAINS CREE. Language use is vigorous in the north. In the south most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. 50% to 75% literate. Bible 1862. NT 1859-1986. Bible portions 1847-1992.
CROW (APSAALOKE) [CRO] 4,280 speakers including 20 minolinguals (1990 census), out of a population of 7,000 (1987 SIL). Southern Montana. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Missouri Valley. Language use is mainly vigorous. A few younger ones prefer English. Close to Hidatsa. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1980-1986. Work in progress.
CUPEÑO [CUP] 9 speakers (1990 census), all over 50 years old, out of a total population of 150 (1962 Chafe). Southern California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Takic, Cupan, Cahuilla-Cupeno. Nearly extinct.
DAKOTA (SIOUX) [DHG] 15,355 speakers in USA including 31 monolinguals (1990 census); 5,000 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 23,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). 103,255 ethnic Sioux in USA (1990 Census Bureau). Northern Nebraska, southern Minnesota, North and South Dakota, northeastern Montana. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Mississippi Valley, Dakota. Dialects: DAKOTA (DAKHOTA, SANTEE, SANTEE-SISSETON), NAKOTA (NAKODA, YANKTON, YANKTON-YANKTONAIS). Many younger ones prefer English or do not speak the language. Bible 1879. NT 1865. Bible portions 1839-1976.
DEGEXIT'AN ("INGALIK", "INGALIT") [ING] 100 speakers out of 300 population (1977 SIL). Alaska, area of lower Yukon River, inland from Eskimo. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Ingalik-Koyukon, Ingalik. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. The names "Ingalik" and "Ingalit" formerly applied to this language are unacceptable to its speakers. Bilingual in English.
ENGLISH [ENG] 210,000,000 first language speakers in USA (1984 estimate); 322,000,000 first language speakers in all countries (1995 WA). 8,400,000 USA residents with no one 14 or older in their family who speaks fluent English, or 38% of 7,700,000 households headed by immigrants. Over half speak Spanish, 18% an Asian language, 28% mainly a European language (1993 USA Census Bureau). Indo-European, Germanic, West, North Sea, English. Dialect: BLACK ENGLISH. National language. Braille Bible. Bible 1382-1989. NT 1380-1993. Bible portions 1530-1993.
EYAK [EYA] 1 older speaker (1996 N. Barnes) out of 20 population (1977 SIL). Mouth of the Copper River, Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Eyak. Nearly extinct.
FLATHEAD-KALISPEL (KALISPEL-FLATHEAD) [FLA] 4 speakers (1990 census), out of 3,000 population (1977 SIL). Kalispel Reservation, northeast Washington, Flathead Reservation, northwest Montana. Salishan, Interior Salish, Southern. Dialects: PEND D'OREILLE, KALISPEL. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Spokane is a coordinate dialect. Bilingual in English. Nearly extinct.
FRENCH, CAJUN (FRANÇAIS ACADIEN, ACADIAN, CAJUN, CAJAN) [FRC] 1,000,000 (M. Harris in B. Comrie 1988.212). Southern Louisiana west of the Mississippi as far north as Avoyelles, Evangeline, Allen, and Calcasieu parishes. Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Romance, North. Dialects: MARSH FRENCH, PRAIRIE FRENCH, BIG WOODS FRENCH. Cajun speakers can partially understand Standard French, but Cajun is almost incomprehensible to Standard French speakers. Many are reported to have limited proficiency in English. Most of those under 50 speak English as first language, Cajun as second, but there are children actively speaking Cajun to friends and family. 60% literate in English, none in French. Different from the variety of 'Broken French' used by 8,000 African Americans, or the 'Napoleanic Era French' (located around Houma and north of Theriot on Hwy. 315, speaking an archaic French and English). Radio broadcasts in Cajun. Cajun dictionary recently published, also textbooks on Cajun, translations of some classics. Ancestors came from French Canada in 18th century. Swamps. Fishermen, fur trappers. Work in progress.
GALICE [GCE] Southwestern Oregon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, Oregon, Tolowa-Galice. Extinct.
GERMAN, HUTTERITE (TYROLESE, TIROLEAN, HUTTERIAN GERMAN) [GEH] 5,000 in USA, 15,000 in Canada (1981 P. Fast SIL); 30,000 in both countries (1982 V. Peters). 30 colonies in USA (South and North Dakota, Montana, 4 colonies in Washington State, a few in Minnesota); 115 or 116 in Canada, with about 100 people in each. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, High. Speakers use Standard German in church and for Scriptures. The are partly bilingual in English and Standard German. Have their own schools. Strict communal living. Communal groups in New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Japan have affiliated recently with Hutterians but are not ethnically Hutterian. Called 'Tirolean', but not a Tirolean dialect. Intensive agriculturalists. Christian.
GERMAN, PENNSYLVANIA (PENNSYLVANISH, PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH) [PDC] 85,000 in USA, including 70,000 Old Order Amish, 15,000 Old Order Mennonites, fewer Pennsylvanisch (Lutheran); 15,000 in Canada; 100,000 total first language speakers (1995 SIL), out of an ethnic population of 200,000 (1978 Kloss and McConnell). Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, Virginia, and Florida. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, High. Dialects: AMISH PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN (PLAIN PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN), NON-AMISH PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN (PENSYLVANISCH DEITSCH, NON-PLAIN PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN). Separate orthographies for Pennsylvania and Ohio dialects, Blending of several German dialects, primarily Rhenish Palatinate (Pfalzer) Low German, with syntactic elements of High German and English. Mostly incomprehensible now to a person from the Palatinate (H. Kloss 1978). Non-plain community is shifting to English; youngest fluent speakers are 40 to 50 years old. Plain community is not shifting, but has stable bilingualism (M. Louden 1987). Christian. NT 1994. Bible portions 1955-1975.
GROS VENTRE (GROS VENTRES, ATSINA, WHITE CLAY PEOPLE, AHAHNELIN, AHE, FALL INDIANS, A' ANANIN) [ATS] 10 or fewer speakers out of 1,200 population (1977 SIL). The 1990 census reports 111 speakers. Fort Belknap Reservation, Milk River, north central Montana. Algic, Algonquian, Plains, Arapaho. Nearly extinct.
GWICH'IN (KUTCHIN) [KUC] 365 speakers in USA (1990 census); 1,500 total speakers out of 2,600 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Northeastern Alaska on Yukon River and tributaries. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Han-Kutchin. Dialects: FORT YUKON GWICH'IN, ARCTIC VILLAGE GWICH'IN, WESTERN CANADA GWICH'IN (TAKUDH, TUKUDH, LOUCHEUX), ARCTIC RED RIVER. Language use is vigorous in isolated communities. Generally most adults speak the language, but many young people prefer English and many children do not speak the language. 75% to 100% literate. Bible 1898. NT 1886. Bible portions 1873-1986. Work in progress.
HAIDA [HAI] 138 speakers in USA (1990 census); 225 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 363 total, out of 2,000 population total (1977 SIL). Southern tip of Alaska panhandle. Na-Dene, Haida. Most or all speakers are over 50. There is interest in reviving the language. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1891-1899.
HAN (HAN-KUTCHIN, MOOSEHIDE, DAWSON) [HAA] 18 speakers in Alaska (1990 census), and few in Canada, out of a total population of 250 (1977 SIL). Yukon River in area of Alaska-Canada border, Eagle, Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Han-Kutchin. All speakers are over 50 years old. Han is being taugght in the bush schools as an elective. Native and non-native children are learning it. There is a Han textbook with tapes for teaching the language. Nearly extinct.
HAVASUPAI-WALAPAI-YAVAPAI (UPPER COLORADO RIVER YUMAN, UPLAND YUMAN) [YUF] 1,007 speakers, including 404 Havasupai speakers (including 6 monolinguals), 440 Walapai speakers, 163 Yavapai speakers (1990 census), out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). Central and northwestern Arizona. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Upland Yuman. Dialects: WALAPAI (HUALPAI), HAVASUPAI, YAVAPAI. Language use is vigorous among Havasupai. Among Walapai many younger people prefer English and some do not speak the language. Among Yavapai most or all speakers are middle aged or older. 91% to 95% lexical similarity among the dialects, 78% to 98% intelligibility. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1980. Work in progress.
HAWAI'I CREOLE ENGLISH (PIDGIN, HAWAI'I PIDGIN ENGLISH) [HAW] 600,000 speakers or more, half of the state population (1986 M. Forman); including 100,000 to 200,000 who do not control standard or near-standard English (1986 M. Forman). Another 100,000 on the USA Mainland. There are many second language users. Population of Hawaii is 1,248,360 (1990 Hawaii Data Book). All the Hawaiian Islands, USA mainland (especially the west coast, Las Vegas, and Orlando). Creole, English based, Pacific. The native speech of a large number of those born or brought up in Hawaii, regardless of racial origin. There is a continuum of speech from the distinct creole to Standard English of Hawaii. Different speakers control different spans along the continuum; there are those whose only form of verbal communication is the creole. The basilect (deep creole) is barely intelligible with standard English (H. McKaughan and M. Forman 1982). It is accepted by many as an important part of the local culture, a distinctive local language. Some official acknowledgement of it in print and public discussion. Used in courts by officers, jurors, plaintiffs, defendants. Creative writing in it is taught in some schools. Some use on radio and TV in public service announcements, commercials, informal conversation. A growing body of serious literature, including poetry. Used in schools for many explanations, because many students do not control Standard English. There are some communication problems at university level. Grammar. 66% to 75% literate. Christian, Buddhist, Hawaiian traditional religion. Work in progress.
HAWAI'I PIDGIN SIGN LANGUAGE (PIDGIN SIGN LANGUAGE) [HPS] A few users, mainly 70 to 90 years old (1993), out of about 6,000 profoundly deaf people in Hawaii (1987 Honolulu Star-Bulletin); 4,181 profoundly deaf on Oahu, 50,174 with hearing loss on Oahu (1993 Honolulu Advertiser). Hawaiian Islands. Deaf sign language. Most deaf people in Hawaii now use American Sign Language with a few local signs for place names. Nearly extinct.
HAWAIIAN ('OLELO HAWAI'I, 'OLELO HAWAI'I MAKUAHINE) [HWI] 1,000 mother tongue speakers, 500 with Ni'ihau Island connections, another 500 in their 70's or 80's (1995 Laina Wong Univ. of Hawaii). 8,000 can speak and understand it (1993 Keith Haugen). 234,700 ethnic Hawaiians in Hawaii, 18.8% of the population (1990 Hawaii State Health Dept.), and 99,269 on the USA Mainland (1990 census), including 24,245 in California. In 1900 there were 37,000 mother tongue speakers (1995 Honolulu Advertiser). Hawaiians include 8,000 pure Hawaiians and 81,000 at least half Hawaiian in Hawaii (1987 Honolulu Star Bulletin). In 1778 there are believed to have been more than 500,000 pure Hawaiians (1995 Wayne Harada). Hawaiian Islands, mainly Ni'ihau Island and the Big Island of Hawai'i, some on all the other islands. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, Oceanic, Central-Eastern Oceanic, Remote Oceanic, Central Pacific, East Fijian-Polynesian, Polynesian, Nuclear, East, Central, Marquesic. 79% lexical similarity with Rarotongan, 77% with Pa'umotu, 76% with Tahitian (Elbert), 71% with Maori (Schütz). Official status in state of Hawai'i. Almost all speakers are bilingual in Hawaii Creole English (Pidgin) or Standard English. The University of Hawaii offers a BA in the Hawaiian language. Punana Leo private schools offer Hawaiian immersion programs (as a second language) for about 800 2-year-old ethnic Hawaiians through 8th grade. Typology: VSO. Christian, traditional religion. Bible 1838. NT 1832-1836. Bible portions 1828-1976.
HIDATSA (MINITARI, HIRACA, HINATSA) [HID] 100 fluent speakers, 25-50 semi-fluent speakers, out of 1,200 population (1986 SIL). The 1990 census reports 451 speakers including 6 monolinguals. Fort Berthold Reservation, North Dakota. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Missouri Valley. Close to Crow. Bilingual in English. Bible portions.
HOCÁK (WINNEBAGO, HOCAK WAZIJACI, HOCANK, HOCHANK, HOCHUNK) [WIN] 250 speakers (1995 V. Zeps), out of 6,000 population (1995). 822 enrolled Hocak in Nebraska, with 535 speakers (1968 USA BIA). Scattered locations in central Wisconsin and Winnebago Reservation in eastern Nebraska. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Winnebago. Dialects: WISCONSIN, NEBRASKA. In Wisconsin most adults speak the language. In Nebraska most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. In 1968 10% were extremely limited in their use of English. Now reported to be bilingual. There is a Language Program which plans a full-immersion Hocak school system, grades pre-school through community college. The name is written with a hook under the 'a' of 'Hocák', representing a nasalized vowel. The official name for the people is Hocak Nation. 'Winnebago' is the Algonguin name. Bible portions 1907.
HOLIKACHUK [HOI] 25 speakers out of 160 population (1977 SIL). Village of Grayling on lower Yukon River, Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Ingalik-Koyukon, Koyukon-Holikachuk. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Nearly extinct.
HOPI [HOP] 5,264 speakers over 5 years old who speak Hopi at home, including 40 monolinguals (1990 census), out of a 6,500 population (1977 SIL). 989 speakers were 5 to 17 years old, 3,309 were 18 to 54, 388 were 55 to 64, 578 were 65 and older (1990 census). Several villages in northeast Arizona, with small numbers in Utah and New Mexico. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Hopi. Language use is vigorous except for some younger ones who prefer English. NT 1972. Bible portions 1929-1962.
HUPA (HOOPA) [HUP] 93 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,100 population (1977 SIL). Hoopa Valley Reservation, northwestern California. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, California, Hupa. Only elderly speakers left. Nearly extinct.
INUKTITUT, NORTH ALASKAN (NORTH ALASKAN ESKIMO, INUPIAT ESKIMO, INUPIAQ, INUPIK) [ESI] 3,500 total speakers out of a population total of 8,000 (1990 L.D. Kaplan). Norton Sound, Alaska to MacKenzie delta region Canada. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Inuit. Dialects: KOTZEBUE SOUND INUPIAT (KOBUK SOUND INUPIAT, MALIMIUT), POINT BARROW ESKIMO, WEST ARCTIC ESKIMO (MACKENZIE ESKIMO). Most speakers are over 30. Younger speakers often prefer English. Comparative Eskimo and Aleut dictionary. NT 1968, in press (1992). Bible portions 1920-1964.
INUKTITUT, NORTHWEST ALASKA INUPIAT (NORTHWEST ALASKA INUPIAT ESKIMO, INUPIATUN) [ESK] 4,000 speakers out of 8,000 population (1978 SIL). Alaska, Kobuk River, Noatak River, Seward Peninsula, and Bering Strait. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Inuit. Dialects: KOBUK RIVER ESKIMO (MALIMIUT ESKIMO), NOATAK RIVER ESKIMO, SEWARD PENINSULA ESKIMO, BERING STRAIT ESKIMO, QAWIARAQ. Most speakers of Seward Peninsula are over 40 (1990). 1% to 5% literate in Inuktitut. Bible portions 1980-1984. Work in progress.
IOWA-OTO [IOW] 15 fluent speakers including 5 in Iowa over 70 years old (1991 M. Krauss) and 10 in Oro (1990 census), about 15 semi-fluent speakers 55 to 70 years old in Iowa, 40 semi-fluent speakers over 70 in Oto, out of 2,400 population, 1,000 Iowa, 1,400 Oto (1986 SIL). North central Oklahoma and Iowa Reservation, northeast Kansas. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Chiwere. Dialects: IOWA (BAXOJE, IOWAY), OTO (OTOE, JIWELE, CHIWERE), NIUTAJI (MISSOURI, MISSOURIA). Iowa and Otoe "are now effectively a single language, with some family variations cross-cutting the tribal affiliations. Speakers believe certain minor differences of pronunciation and vocabulary reflect original tribal dialect distinctions" (J. E. Koontz 1996). Missouri dialect has been extinct for many years. Nearly extinct.
JEMEZ (TOWA) [TOW] 1,437 speakers including 6 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 1,488 population (1980 census). 95% of the population under 18 years of age were speakers in 1980. North central New Mexico. Kiowa Tanoan, Kiowa-Towa, Towa. Vigorous language use. 50% to 75% literate. Traditional religion, Christian. Survey needed.
KALAPUYA (SANTIAM, LUKAMIUTE, WAPATU) [KAL] 1 or 2 speakers over 50 years old (1962 Chafe). Northwest Oregon. Penutian, Oregon Penutian, Kalapuyan. Nearly extinct.
KANSA (KAW, KONZE, KANZE) [KAA] 19 speakers (1990 census), out of 250 population (1986 SIL). Oklahoma, north central. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dhegiha. Closely related to Omaha, Osage, Ponca, and Quapaw. Nearly extinct.
KAROK (KARUK) [KYH] 126 speakers (1990 census), out of 3,781 population (1982 SIL). Northwestern California, along the banks of the Klamath River. Hokan, Northern, Karok-Shasta. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or over. Bilingual in English. No significant dialect differences.
KASHAYA (SOUTHWESTERN POMO) [KJU] 50 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). 100 or fewer speakers, all Pomo varieties (1977 SIL). Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Russian River and Eastern, Russian River, Southern. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Nearly extinct.
KATO (CAHTO, BATEM-DA-KAI-EE, KAI PO-MO, TLOKEANG) [KTW] 10 speakers or fewer, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe) out of 92 population (1982 SIL). Laytonville Reservation, northwestern California. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, California, Mattole-Wailaki. Nearly extinct.
KAWAIISU [KAW] 10 or fewer speakers, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe) out of 150 population (1977 SIL). California, south, Tehachapi-Mojave area of the Mojave Desert. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Numic, Southern. Nearly extinct.
KERES, EASTERN (EASTERN KERES PUEBLO) [KEE] 4,578 speakers out of 5,701 population (80%); 463 Zia speakers out of 602 population, 229 Santa Ana speakers out of 374 population, 1,560 San Felipe speakers out of 1,789 population, 1,888 Santo Domingo speakers out of 2,140 population, 438 Cochiti speakers out of 796 population (1980 census). Percentage of persons under 18 years old who are speakers, 82.5%: Zia 80%, Santa Ana 32.4%, San Felipe 99.2%, Santo Domingo 100%, Cochiti 21.7%. Above 18: 95.3%. The 1990 census reports 8,722 Eastern and Western Keres speakers including 44 monolinguals. North central New Mexico. Keres. Dialects: ZIA, SANTA ANA, SAN FELIPE, SANTO DOMINGO, COCHITI. Language use is vigorous in some pueblos; in others some younger people prefer English. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1933-1936. Work in progress.
KERES, WESTERN (WESTERN KERES PUEBLO) [KJQ] 3,391 speakers out of 5,880 population (57.7%); 1,695 Laguna speakers out of 3,526 population, 1,696 Acoma speakers out of 2,354 population (1980 census). Percentage of speakers under 18 years old who are speakers, 47.7%: Laguna 32.3%, Acoma 67.9%. Above 18: 75.1%. New Mexico, north central. Keres. Dialect: ACOMA (LAGUNA). In Acoma most adults speak the language but some younger people prefer English and many children do not speak the language. In Laguna most or all speakers are middle-aged or over. 50% to 75% literate. Bible portions 1966. Work in progress.
KIKAPOO (KICKAPOO, KIKAPU) [KIC] 539 speakers in the USA, including 6 monolinguals (1990 census); 300 in Mexico (1990); 839 total out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). Northeastern Kansas: Horton; central Oklahoma: McCloud, Jones; Texas: Nuevo Nacimiento. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Possibly intelligible with Sac and Fox (Mesquakie). Language use is vigorous in Mexico. In Oklahoma some younger people prefer English, and in Kansas most or all speakers are middle-aged or over. Dictionary. Work in progress.
KIOWA [KIO] 1,092 speakers (1990 census), out of 6,000 population (1977 SIL). Oklahoma, west central. Kiowa Tanoan, Kiowa-Towa, Kiowa. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
KITSAI (KICHAI) [KII] No speakers out of 350 population (1977 SIL). West central Oklahoma among the Caddo, Caddo County. Caddoan, Northern, Pawnee-Kitsai, Kitsai. Extinct.
KLAMATH-MODOC [KLA] 88 speakers (1990 census), out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL). Oregon, south central. Penutian, Plateau Penutian, Klamath-Modoc. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
KOASATI (COUSHATTA) [CKU] 286 speakers (1990 census), including 180 speakers out of 320 to 370 in the ethnic group in Louisiana; fewer than 100 in Texas (1992 D. Rising SIL). Koasati reservation near Elton, Louisiana, and Alabama-Koasati reservation near Livingston, Texas. Others elsewhere; 1 family in Oregon. The language is no longer used in Oklahoma. Muskogean, Eastern. In Louisiana the people use Koasati in the home and for church services. 30 people have limited English proficiency (1992 D. Rising SIL). Others are quite bilingual in English. A few are more bilingual in Cajun French than in English. Language use in Texas is less vigorous than in Louisiana. Less than 50% cognate with Alabama. The grammars of the two are significantly different. Christian. Selections 1980. Survey needed.
KOYUKON (TEN'A) [KOY] 20 speakers (1990 census), out of 2,200 population (1977 SIL). Alaska, Koyukuk and middle Yukon Rivers. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Ingalik-Koyukon, Koyukon-Holikachuk. All speakers are elderly. They are bilingual in English. Bible portions 1974-1980. Nearly extinct.
KUMIÁI (DIGUEÑO, CAMPO, KAMIA) [DIH] 97 speakers in USA (1990 census); 220 in Mexico (1991 Garza and Lastra); 320 in both countries. Southern California east of San Diego, including some in Imperial Valley. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Delta-Californian. Speakers in California are very bilingual in English. Spanish is the second language in Mexico.
KUSKOKWIM, UPPER (MCGRATH INGALIK) [KUU] 140 speakers out of 150 population (1977 SIL). Upper Kuskokwim River, central Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tanana-Upper Kuskokwim, Upper Kuskokwim. At one time the people were regarded as part of the Ingalik tribe. Bilingual in English.
KUTENAI (KTUNAXA, KOOTENAI) [KUN] 102 speakers in USA (1990 census); 100 mother tongue speakers in Canada (1981 census); 202 total speakers out of 1,500 population including Canada (1991). Northern Idaho, Flathead Reservation, Montana. Language Isolate. All speakers are elderly. Bilingual in English. Columbia Lake Reserve in Canada is offering a Kutenai as a second language course (1991).
LAKOTA (LAKHOTA, TETON) [LKT] 6,000 speakers out of 20,000 population (1987 SIL). 103,255 ethnic Sioux in USA (1990 Census Bureau). Northern Nebraska, southern Minnesota, North and South Dakota, northeastern Montana. Not in Canada. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dakota. Language use is vigorous in some Lakota communities.
LOUISIANA CREOLE FRENCH [LOU] 60,000 to 80,000 (1985 Neumann) out of an ethnic group of 1,500,000 (1977 M. Adler). Predominantly in St. Martin parish (St. Martinville, Breaux Bridge, Cecilia), New Roads and Edgard, Louisiana, parts of east Texas, small community in Sacramento, California. Creole, French based. Different from Standard French, the Cajun French also spoken in Louisiana, Haitian Creole French, and others of the Caribbean. Reports indicate that monolingual speakers may not be able to understand those other creoles. People have a high degree of bilingualism in English. Those over 60 prefer Creole, and those under 30 prefer English. A few (4.6%) in the older group are monolingual in Creole, and some in the younger group are monolingual in English. "Over 2/3 of the original slaves came from Senegambia, hardly any slaves arrived during the second decade of exploitation, and within just over two decades, 2/3 of the population was native-born. No slaves (and few if any of the slaveowners) appear to have come from the French Antilles ... What we now need is a careful comparison between Louisiana Creole and other French Caribbean creoles, detailing the similarities and differences" (D. Bickerton, Carrier Pidgin 1995.23.2:2). Survey needed.
LUISEÑO [LUI] 43 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). Southern California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Takic, Cupan, Luiseno. Dialects: JUANEÑO, LUISEÑO. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
LUMBEE (CROATAN) [LUA] No speakers out of 30,000 population (1977 SIL). Southern North Carolina and into South Carolina and Maryland. Algic, Algonquian, Unclassified. Racially mixed descendents of a Pamlico group. Still a distinct ethnic group. Extinct.
LUSHOOTSEED [LUT] 60 speakers or fewer (1990 M.D. Kinkade) about evenly divided between the northern and southern dialects, from a population of 2,000. Washington, Puget Sound area. Salishan, Central Salish, Twana. Dialects: NORTHERN LUSHOOTSEED (NORTHERN PUGET SOUND SALISH), SOUTHERN LUSHOOTSEED (SOUTHERN PUGET SOUND SALISH). Northern Lushootseed includes subdialects Skagit, Snohomish, and Swinomish; southern Lushootseed includes Duwamish, Nisqually, Puyallup, and Suquamish. There are numerous programs starting up around Puget Sound teaching Lushootseed, in which children, parents, and elders are taking part. It is also being introduced as a language available at local colleges. Nearly extinct.
MAIDU, NORTHEAST (MOUNTAIN MAIDU) [NMU] 10 or fewer (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). 100 or more in the ethnic group (1990). California, northern Sierras. Penutian, California Penutian, Maidu. A separate language from other Maidu varieties. Only elderly speakers left. Nearly extinct.
MAIDU, NORTHWEST (DIGGER, HOLÓLUPAI, MAIDUAN, MEIDOO, MICHOPDO, NÁKUM, SECUMNE, SEKUMNE, TSAMAK, YUBA, KONKOW, KONKAU, CONCOW) [MAI] 10 to 100 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). Possibly 20 speakers of all Maidu varieties out of 200 population (1977 SIL). Lower foothills of the Sierras, central California. Penutian, California Penutian, Maidu. A separate language from other Maidu varieties. Alternate names listed apply to all Maidu except the last three. Only elderly speakers are left. The ethnic group is scattered. Nearly extinct.
MAIDU, VALLEY [VMV] California, between Sacramento and the Sierra foothills. Penutian, California Penutian, Maidu. A separate language from other Maidu varieties. Extinct.
MAKAH (KWE-NEE-CHEE-AHT, KWEEDISHCHAAHT) [MYH] 123 speakers (1990 census), out of 900 population on the reservation, and others not on the reservation (1995 Davissons). Northern tip of Olympic Peninsula, opposite Vancouver Island, Washington. Wakashan, Southern. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Speakers are bilingual in English. Makah is taught bilingually in preschool on the reservation and is ongoing throughout grade school, although not heavily encouraged. There is a Makah Cultural Center.
MALECITE-PASSAMAQUODDY [MAC] 887 speakers in USA (1990 census); 1,500 total speakers out of 3,000 population (1982 SIL). Maine, New Brunswick border area. Malecite mainly in Canada, Passamaquoddy mainly in Maine. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Dialects: MALECITE (MALISEET), PASSAMAQUODDY. Most speakers are middle-aged or older with younger speakers in a few areas. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1870.
MANDAN [MHQ] 6 fluent aged speakers (1992 M. Krauss), 2 semi-fluent speakers over 60 years old (1986 SIL), out of 400 population (1986 SIL). Fort Berthold Reservation, North Dakota. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mandan. Grammar. Nearly extinct.
MARICOPA (COCOMARICOPA) [MRC] 181 speakers (1990 census), out of 400 population (1977 SIL). Associated with the Pima on the Gila River and Salt River reservations near Phoenix, Arizona. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, River Yuman. 85% lexical similarity with Mohave, 58% with Havasupai, 57% with Walapai and Yavapai. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older.
MARTHA'S VINEYARD SIGN LANGUAGE [MRE] Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. Deaf sign language. The first deaf person arrived in 1692. From 1692 to 1950 there was a high rate of hereditary deafness. In the 19th century, 1/5700 of Americans were deaf, 1/155 in Martha's Vineyard, 1/25 in one town, 1/4 in one neighborhood. From 1692 to 1910 nearly all hearers were bilingual in English and sign language. The early sign language was based on a regional one in Weald, England, where the deaf persons' ancestors had lived. French Sign Language was introduced to Martha's Vineyard in 1817. MVSL was later combined with American Sign Language, but never became identical to ASL. Extinct.
MATTOLE [MVB] Northern California. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, California, Mattole-Wailaki. Extinct.
MENOMINI (MENOMINEE) [MEZ] 8 speakers out of 3,500 population (1977 SIL). Northeastern Wisconsin, on what was formerly the Menomini Reservation. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Only elderly speakers are left. Grammar. Nearly extinct.
MESQUAKIE (SAC AND FOX, SAUK-FOX) [SAC] 800 speakers out of 2,500 population (1977 SIL); 673 Fox speakers including 2 monolinguals (1990 census). Mesquakie at Tama, Iowa; Sac and Fox at Sac and Fox Reservation on eastern Kansas-Nebraska border and central Oklahoma. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Dialects: FOX, SAC, MESQUAKIE. Kansas and Oklahoma groups are closely related to Kikapoo of Oklahoma and Mexico. Language use is vigorous in Iowa. Elsewhere most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1986. Work in progress.
MIAMI (MIAMI-ILLINOIS) [MIA] No speakers out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL). Miami in north central Indiana, Miami and Peoria in northeast Oklahoma. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Dialects: MIAMI, PEORIA. Extinct.
MICMAC (RESTIGOUCHE) [MIC] 2,000 in Boston, 10 to 100 in New York City; 6,000 speakers out of 11,000 population in Canada; 8,100 total. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. 50% to 75% literate. NT 1874. Bible portions 1853-1980. Work in progress.
MIKASUKI (HITCHITI, MIKASUKI SEMINOLE, MICCOSUKEE) [MIK] 496 speakers including 33 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 1,200 population (1977 SIL). Southern Florida. Muskogean, Eastern. Dialects: HITCHITI, MIKASUKI. Language use is vigorous except at Hollywood, where most younger ones do not speak Mikasuki. There are monolinguals only among elderly women. Not intelligible with Creek, Alabama, or Koasati. Bible portions 1980-1985. Work in progress.
MITCHIF (FRENCH CREE) [CRG] 390 speakers in USA (1990 census). Turtle Mountain Reservation, North Dakota. Also scattered locations in Canada. Creole, Cree-French. A French creole or almost a creole. Closest to Plains Cree. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
MIWOK, CENTRAL SIERRA [CSM] 5 or fewer (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). The 1990 census reports 105 speakers of 'Sierra Miwok'. California, upper valeys of the Stanislause and Tuolumne. Penutian, California Penutian, Miwok-Costanoan, Miwok, Eastern. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. Nearly extinct.
MIWOK, COAST [CSI] 1 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California, coast from San Francisco Bay to Bodega Bay. Penutian, California Penutian, Miwok-Costanoan, Miwok, Western. Dialects: BODEGA, HUIMEN, MARIN MIWOK. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. Bodega and Marin Miwok were possibly separate languages. Nearly extinct.
MIWOK, LAKE [LMW] 8 (1965 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California, Clear Lake basin. Penutian, California Penutian, Miwok-Costanoan, Miwok, Western. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. Nearly extinct.
MIWOK, NORTHERN SIERRA [NSQ] 20 to 30 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California, upper valleys of Mokelumne and Calaveras rivers. Penutian, California Penutian, Miwok-Costanoan, Miwok, Eastern. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. Nearly extinct.
MIWOK, PLAINS (VALLEY MIWOK) [PMW] 1 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California, deltas of the San Joaquin and Cosumnes rivers. Penutian, California Penutian, Miwok-Costanoan, Miwok, Eastern. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. Nearly extinct.
MIWOK, SOUTHERN SIERRA (MEEWOC, MEWOC, ME-WUK, MIWOC, MIWOKAN, MOKÉLUMNE, MOQUELUMNAN, SAN RAPHAEL, TALATUI, TALUTUI, YOSEMITE, SACLAN, SAKLAN) [SKD] 20 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977); 10 speakers or fewer out of a possible 300 population for all Miwok (1977 SIL). California, along headwaters of the Merced and Chowchilla rivers and on Mariposa Creek. Penutian, California Penutian, Miwok-Costanoan, Miwok, Eastern. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. Saclan is extinct. Alternate names listed refer to all Miwok except last three. Nearly extinct.
MOBILIAN (MOBILIAN JARGON) [MOD] No fluent speakers left; became extinct about 100 years ago. Gulf area, south central USA. Pidgin, Amerindian. Pidgin formerly used as lingua franca. Some similarities to Choctaw, Chickasaw, and other Muskogean languages. Loan words from Spanish, English, French, Creek, Alabama-Koasati, Choctaw, Chickasaw. Typology: OSV. Extinct.
MOHAVE (MOJAVE) [MOV] 234 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). Fort Mohave and Colorado River reservations, on the California-Arizona border. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, River Yuman. 85% lexical similarity with Maricopa, 63% with Walapai and Havasupai, 62% with Yavapai. Most adults speak the language but many younger ones do not.
MOHAWK (KANIEN'KEHAKA) [MOH] 1,667 speakers in the USA (1990 census); 3,000 total speakers out of 10,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). St. Regis Reservation, northern New York. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Mohawk-Oneida. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. In some areas the younger ones may speak the language. Bible portions 1787-1991. Work in progress.
MOHEGAN-MONTAUK-NARRAGANSETT [MOF] No speakers out of 1,400 population (1977 SIL). Connecticut, Rhode Island, Long Island, New York, Wisconsin. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Dialects: PEQUOT-MOHEGAN, NARRANGANSETT, MONTAUK (SHINNECOCK-POOSEPATUCK), STOCKBRIDGE. Extinct.
MONO [MON] 20 speakers possibly, out of 200 population (1977 SIL). East central California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Numic, Western. Related to Northern Paiute. Only a few elderly speakers left. Nearly extinct.
MUSKOGEE (CREEK) [CRK] 6,213 speakers including 43 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 20,000 population (1977 SIL). Creek and Seminole of east central Oklahoma, Creek of southern Alabama, Seminole of Brighton Reservation, Florida. Muskogean, Eastern. Dialects: CREEK, SEMINOLE. Also closely related to Mikasuki in Florida. Most adults speak the language. Many younger ones may prefer English and some may not speak the language. The dialects are not very different. NT 1886-1891, out of print. Bible portions 1835-1896.
NANTICOKE [NNT] No speakers out of 400 population (1977 SIL). Southern Delaware. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Extinct.
NATCHEZ [NCZ] No speakers left. Oklahoma. Gulf. There are some individuals of Natchez descent among the Creek and Cherokee in Oklahoma. Extinct.
NAVAHO (DINE, NAVAJO) [NAV] 148,530 speakers including 7,616 monolinguals (1990 census) out of 219,198 ethnic Navaho (1990 USA Census Bureau). Northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, southeastern Utah, and a few in Colorado. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Apachean, Navajo-Apache, Western Apache-Navajo. Language use is vigorous. The people prefer the name 'Dine'. Bible 1985. NT 1956-1959. Bible portions 1910-1994.
NEZ PERCE [NEZ] 697 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). The 1990 census also reports 878 Sahaptian speakers. Northern Idaho. Penutian, Plateau Penutian, Sahaptin. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Conversational Nez Perce taught in Nespelem, Washington. Dictionary. Bible portions 1845-1876.
NISENAN (SOUTHERN MAIDU, NEESHENAM, NISHINAM, PUJUNI, WAPUMNI) [NSZ] 12 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). Central California, scattered, foothills of the Sierras. Penutian, California Penutian, Maidu. A separate language from other Maidu varieties. Only elderly speakers are left. Nearly extinct.
NOOKSACK (NOOTSACK) [NOK] The ethnic group numbers about 350 (1977 SIL). Northwest corner of Washington. Salishan, Central Salish, Nooksack. Extinct since about 1988.
OFO [OFO] Lower Mississippi Valley. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Southeastern, Biloxi-Ofo. Extinct.
OJIBWA, EASTERN [OJG] 8,000 total speakers out of 25,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). 10 monolinguals (1990 census). 20,000 total Ojibwa in USA (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Ottawa and Chippewa in Michigan. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Ojibwa. Dialects: EASTERN CHIPPEWA, OTTAWA (ODAWA). Language is dying out in many areas, but is still spoken on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron by most adults and some younger ones. Probably all speakers are bilingual in English, some in other Ojibwa varieties. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions 1841-1844.
OJIBWA, WESTERN (SAULTEAUX, CHIPPEWA, SOUTHERN OJIBWAY, MISSISSIPPI OJIBWA) [OJI] 35,000 total speakers (1977 SIL). 103,826 ethnic Chippewa in USA (1990 Census Bureau). From Lake Superior westward to North Dakota, and some groups in Montana. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Ojibwa. Dialect: WESTERN CHIPPEWA. In USA most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. In Canada language use is more vigorous. NT 1833-1854. Bible portions 1831-1874.
OKANAGAN (OKANAGAN-COLVILLE, OKANAGON, OKANOGAN) [OKA] 112 speakers in USA (1990 census); 500 total speakers out of 3,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Another source says 10,000 in the ethnic group (1996 Peter Stark). Colville Reservation, Washington. Salishan, Interior Salish, Southern. Dialects: SOUTHERN OKANAGAN, SANPOIL, COLVILLE, LAKE. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Dictionary. Grammar.
OMAHA-PONCA [OMA] 85 fluent speakers including 60 speakers of Omaha (1993 V. Zeps), out of 3,000 population (1993 C. Rudin), and 25 fluent speakers over 60 and a few semi-fluent speakers of Ponca out of 2,000 population (1986 SIL). Omaha Reservation, eastern Nebraska (Omaha), and north central Oklahoma (Ponca). Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dhegiha. Dialects: OMAHA, PONCA. Closely related to Osage, Quapaw, and Kansa. Most adults speak the language. Many young adults may prefer English. Children tend to prefer English, but many can understand Omaha and some may speak it. In 1968 about 25% (665) of the Omaha were extremely limited in their use of English. Traditional religion, Christian.
ONEIDA [ONE] 50 speakers in USA; 200 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 7,000 total population (1977 SIL). The 1990 census reports 382 speakers in the USA, including 6 monolinguals. Central New York, eastern Wisconsin. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Mohawk-Oneida. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1880-1942.
ONONDAGA (ONANDAGA) [ONO] 15 speakers in USA (1993 V. Zeps); 50 to 100 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 1,000 population in USA (1993); 1,500 total population (1977 SIL). Central New York south of Syracuse. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Seneca-Onondaga, Onondaga. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
OSAGE (WAZHAZHE) [OSA] 5 fluent aged speakers (1991 M. Krauss), and a few semi-fluent speakers, out of 2,500 population (1986 SIL). North central Oklahoma. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dhegiha. Closely related to Omaha, Ponca, Quapaw, and Kansa. Bible portions. Nearly extinct.
PAIUTE, NORTHERN (PAVIOTSO) [PAO] 2,000 speakers out of 4,000 population (1987 SIL). Northern Nevada and adjacent areas of Oregon, California, and Idaho. Spoken on about twenty reservations spread out over 1,000 miles. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Numic, Western. Dialects: BANNOCK, NORTH NORTHERN PAIUTE (MCDERMITT), SOUTH NORTHERN PAIUTE (YERINGTON-SCHURZ). Related to Mono. Most adults speak the language but some younger ones do not. Almost every reservation has its own dialect. All dialects are inherently intelligible. McDermitt (one of the northern ones) dialect is the most viable. Yerington-Schurz (one of the southern ones) is the dialect of cultural innovation. NT 1985. Bible portions 1977.
PAPAGO-PIMA (O'ODHAM, O'OTHHAM, NEVOME, NEBOME, UPPER PIMAN) [PAP] 11,819 speakers including 181 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 20,000 population (1977 SIL). South central Arizona. Also in Mexico. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman. Dialects: PAPAGO, PIMA. Language use is vigorous in the west and south. In the north and east some younger ones do not speak it or they prefer English. From elementary school on, schools on the Tohono O'Odham Nation teach the language. Distinct from Pima Bajo of Mexico. NT 1975. Bible portions 1967.
PAWNEE [PAW] 127 speakers (1990 census), out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL). North central Oklahoma. Caddoan, Northern, Pawnee-Kitsai, Pawnee. Dialects: PAWNEE, SKIDI. Closely related to Arikara. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
PLAINS INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE [PSD] Great Plains. Sign language. Arose when horses were introduced from the south by the Spanish and guns from the east by the French. Formerly used between nations in hunting, trade, and at every level of social interaction, and with non-Indians. Today used within nations in storytelling, rituals, legends, prayers. Not a deaf sign language. Second language only. No mother tongue speakers.
PLAUTDIETSCH (LOW GERMAN, MENNONITE GERMAN) [GRN] 10,000 in USA (1978 Kloss and McConnell); 80,000 to 100,000 in Canada; 110,735 in Latin America are fairly monolingual; 306,000 in all countries. Hillsboro, Kansas; Reedley, California; and Corn, Oklahoma. Also around Winnipeg and in rural Mennonite settlements throughout Canada except the Maritimes; in Chihuahua and Durango, Mexico; Belize, Paraguay, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Russia, Kazakhstan, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina; and Friesland, Germany. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, Low. Not inherently intelligible with Pennsylvania German, Hutterite German, many other Low German languages or Standard German. 5% speak Standard German, 98% speak English as second language. 95% literate. Christian. NT 1987. Bible portions 1984-1986.
POMO, CENTRAL (BALLO-KAI-POMO, CABANAPO, HABENAPO, H'HANA, KÁBINAPEK, KHABENAPO, KHANA, KULANAPAN, KULANAPO, VENAAMBAKAIA, VENAMBAKAIIA, YOKAIA) [POO] 40 or fewer (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977); 165 speakers (1990 census) out of 1,000 population for all Pomo (1977 SIL). Clear Lake area, northern California. Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Russian River and Eastern, Russian River, Southern. Dialects: POINT ARENA, HOPLAND, UKIAH. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Nearly extinct.
POMO, EASTERN (CLEAR LAKE POMO) [PEB] California, Clear Lake area. Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Russian River and Eastern, Eastern. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Extinct.
POMO, NORTHEASTERN (SALT POMO) [PEF] 1 (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California, Coast Range Valley of Story Creek; a tributary of the Sacramento River. Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Russian River and Eastern, Russian River, Northeastern. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Nearly extinct.
POMO, NORTHERN [PEJ] California, Sherwood Valley area. Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Russian River and Eastern, Russian River, Northern. Dialects: GUIDIVILLE, SHERWOOD VALLEY. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Became extinct in 1994 (M. Krauss).
POMO, SOUTHEASTERN (LOWER LAKE POMO) [PEO] 10 or fewer (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California, eastern shores of Clear Lake. Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Southeastern. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Nearly extinct.
POMO, SOUTHERN (GALLINOMÉRO) [PEQ] 40 or fewer (1962 H. Landar in Sebeok 1977). California. Hokan, Northern, Pomo, Russian River and Eastern, Russian River, Southern. A separate language from other Pomo varieties. Nearly extinct.
POTAWATOMI (POTTAWOTOMI) [POT] 200 speakers in USA (1990 census); 200 speakers in Canada (1991 H. Dale Kincade); 300 total speakers, out of 7,500 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Southern Michigan and adjacent Ontario, northern Wisconsin and adjacent Michigan, northeastern Kansas, central Oklahoma. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1844.
POWHATAN (VIRGINIA ALGONKIAN) [PIM] No speakers out of 3,000 population (1977 SIL). Scattered in eastern Virginia. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Extinct.
QUAPAW (ARKANSAS, ALKANSEA, CAPA, OGAXPA) [QUA] 34 speakers (1990 census) out of 2,000 population (1986 SIL). Northeastern corner of Oklahoma. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dhegiha. Closely related to Kansa, Omaha, Osage, and Ponca, all called 'Dhegiha'. Nearly extinct.
QUECHAN (KECHAN, YUMA, QUECL) [YUM] 343 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). Ft. Yuma Reservation, southeastern corner of California. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, River Yuman. Closely related to Maricopa and Mohave. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
QUILEUTE [QUI] 10 speakers possibly out of 300 population (1977 SIL). Pacific side of Olympic Peninsula in Washington. Chimakuan. Dialects: QUILEUTE, HOH. Nearly extinct.
QUINAULT [QUN] 6 or fewer speakers (1990) out of a population of 1,500 (1977 SIL). Pacific side of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington. Salishan, Tsamosan, Maritime. Dialect: LOWER CHEHALIS. Nearly extinct.
ROMANI, VLACH (VLACH, VLAX, WALLACH) [RMY] 650,000 in North America (1990 I. Hancock); 1,500,000 Vlach in all countries (1986 estimate). Pacific northwest, Los Angeles, Texas, upper mid-west, Chicago, urban northeast, eastern Virginia. Growing communities of Lovari in New York and Chicago. Also in Romania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Hungary, Slovakia, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, Germany, Netherlands, England, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Vlax. Dialects: MACHVANO KALDERASH (MACHVAYA, MACHVANICZKO, MACHWAYA), RUSURJA KALDERASH, ROMUNGRE, LOVARI, GREKURJA. Gypsies are non-literate for the most part (Ian Hancock 1984). Vlach from Serbia are called 'Machvano', from the former USSR 'Rusurja', from Hungary and Slovakia 'Romungre'. The Russian Kalderash are the most numerous in the USA and in most of the Americas. Many are professionals. Christian. NT 1984-1986. Bible portions 1930-1986.
RUSSIAN (RUSSKI) [RUS] 334,615 in USA (1970 census); 170,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). Also in Russia and other republics of the former USSR, Israel, Mongolia, China, eastern Europe. Indo-European, Slavic, East. The Doukhobors and Molokans are conservative religious groups who speak Standard Russian. Other Russian speakers in the USA have long-standing residence; still others have come more recently. Bible 1680-1993. NT 1821-1946. Bible portions 1815-1993.
SALINAN [SAL] California, central coast. Hokan, Salinan-Seri. Formerly there were two dialects. Extinct.
SALISH, SOUTHERN PUGET SOUND [SLH] 107 speakers including 5 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL). Southern end of Puget Sound, Washington. Salishan, Central Salish, Twana. Dialects: DUWAMISH, MUCKLESHOOT, NISQUALLY, PUYALLUP, SNOQUALMIE, SUQUH. Only elderly speakers left. Nearly extinct.
SALISH, STRAITS (STRAITS) [STR] 30 total speakers or fewer (1990) out of a population of 3,000 (1977 SIL). Southeastern Vancouver Island, British Columbia and adjoining portions of Washington, including the islands in between. Salishan, Central Salish, Straits. Dialects: SAANICH, LUMMI, SAMISH, SOOKE, SONGISH. All speakers are middle-aged or over. Bilingual in English. The Samish dialect is linguistically extinct. Conversational Salish is taught in Nespelem, Washington.
SEA ISLANDS CREOLE ENGLISH ("GULLAH", "GEECHEE") [GUL] 125,000 speakers (1977 I. Hancock), including 7,000 to 10,000 monolinguals, and 10,000 in New York City (1989 J. Holm); 250,000 speak some degree of it (1987 New York Times). Coastal region from Jacksonville, North Carolina to Jacksonville, Florida, and especially on the Sea Islands off the Georgia coast. Small clusters in New York City. Creole, English based, Atlantic, Eastern, Northern. Dialects: NORTHEAST FLORIDA COAST, GEORGIA, SOUTH CAROLINA. In limited contact with English, and barely understandable with Standard English. Intelligibility with other English based creoles is undetermined. Very close to Bahamas Creole and Afro-Seminole; 90% lexical similarity with Afro-Seminole. Vigorous language use. Government bilingual education program begun. The names "Gullah" and "Geechee" are not desirable. Linguistic influences from Fula, Mende, upper Guinea coast, Gambia River area (I. Hancock 1987). Scholars have been predicting its demise for 100 years (W. Stewart). 75% to 100% literate. Swamps, coastal plains. Agriculturalists: rice, cotton. Bible portions 1994. Work in progress.
SENECA [SEE] 200 total speakers out of 8,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL); 25 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Tonawanda, Cattaraugus, and Allegheny Reservations in western New York, and mixed with Cayuga in northeastern Oklahoma. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Seneca-Onondaga, Seneca-Cayuga. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1829-1874.
SERRANO [SER] 1 elderly speaker (1994 C.J. Coker). Southern California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Takic, Serrano-Gabrielino. Nearly extinct.
SHASTA (SASTEAN, SHASTAN) [SHT] 12 speakers (1990 census), all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe). Northern California. Hokan, Northern, Karok-Shasta, Shasta-Palaihninan, Shastan. Formerly there were four dialects. Nearly extinct.
SHAWNEE [SJW] 234 speakers (1990 census), out of 2,000 population (1977 SIL). Central and northeastern Oklahoma. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Bible portions 1842-1929.
SHOSHONI (SHOSHONE) [SHH] 2,284 speakers (1990 census), out of 7,000 population (1977 SIL). The Panamint are in eastern California, Shoshone in central to northeastern Nevada, Ft. Hall, Idaho, Wind River, Wyoming; Goshute in western Utah. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Numic, Central. Dialects: GOSIUTE (GOSHUTE), PANAMINT (KOSO), SHOSHONE. Closely related to Comanche. Language use is vigorous in some locations, in others only the older ones speak the language. Bible portions 1986. Work in progress.
SIUSLAW [SIS] 1 or 2 speakers, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe). 44 ethnic Siuslaw (1990 USA Census Bureau). Southern Oregon coast. Penutian, Oregon Penutian, Yakonan. Nearly extinct.
SKAGIT (SWINOMISH) [SKA] 100 speakers out of 350 population (1977 SIL). East side of Puget Sound, Washington. Salishan, Central Salish, Twana. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
SNOHOMISH [SNO] 20 speakers possibly, out of 800 population (1977 SIL). Tulalip Reservation, northwestern Washington. Salishan, Central Salish, Twana. Only elderly speakers are left. Nearly extinct.
SPANISH (ESPAÑOL, CASTELLANO) [SPN] 22,400,000 in USA, 8.9% of the population (1990 census); 266,000,000 in all countries (1987 Time). San Antonio, Texas to Los Angeles; Miami, Florida area; New York City, Illinois, Denver, other areas. Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Ibero-Romance, North, Central. Population has increased 61% or more since 1970. Official status in New Mexico. Bible 1553-1979. NT 1543-1986. Bible portions 1514-1985.
SPOKANE (SPOKAN) [SPO] 50 or fewer speakers (1990) out of a population of 1,000 (1977 SIL). Northeastern Washington. Salishan, Interior Salish, Southern. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Closely related to Flathead-Kalispel.
TANAINA [TFN] 18 speakers including 2 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 900 population (1977 SIL). Around Cook Inlet and adjacent area of southern Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tanaina-Ahtna. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Nearly extinct.
TANANA [TAA] 100 speakers out of 360 population (1977 SIL). Lower and middle Tanana River, central Alaska. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tanana-Upper Kuskokwim, Tanana. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
TANANA, UPPER (NABESNA) [TAU] 250 speakers (1980 Krauss), out of 460 population in USA (1977 SIL). Area of upper Tanana River, east central Alaska. Also a few in Canada. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tanana-Upper Kuskokwim, Tanana. Dialect: TANACROSS. Most adults speak the language. Many younger ones prefer English and some may not speak the language. Bible portions 1970-1982.
TENINO (WARM SPRINGS) [WAR] 200 speakers out of 1,000 population (1977 SIL). Warm Springs Reservation, Oregon. Penutian, Plateau Penutian, Sahaptin. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
TEWA [TEW] 1,298 speakers out of 2,383 population, 54.5% (1980 census). 49.8% of the population below 18 years of age are speakers; 70% above 18. 50 Nambe speakers out of 175 population, 25 Pojoaque out of 37, 349 San Ildefonso out of 478, 495 San Juan out of 1,146, 207 Santa Clara out of 318, 172 Tesuque out of 229 (1980 census). 18 monolinguals (1990 census). North of Santa Fe, New Mexico and at Hano on the Hopi Reservation, Arizona. Kiowa Tanoan, Tewa-Tiwa, Tewa. Dialects: HANO, SAN JUAN, NAMBE, POJOAQUE, SANTA CLARA, SAN ILDEFONSO, TESUQUE. Most adults speak the language. Many younger ones prefer English and some do not speak the language. Dictionary. Bible portions 1969-1984.
TILLAMOOK [TIL] Northwestern Oregon. Salishan, Tillamook. The last speaker died in 1970. Extinct.
TIWA, NORTHERN [TAO] 927 speakers out of 1,166 population, 79.5% (1980 census). 803 Taos speakers out of 1,042 population; 101 Picuris speakers (1990 census), out of 124 population (1980 census). 67.3% of Taos people under 18 years of age are speakers; 92.9% over 18 are speakers (1980 census). North central New Mexico. Kiowa Tanoan, Tewa-Tiwa, Tiwa. Dialects: TAOS, PICURIS. Language use is vigorous at Taos. At Picuris speakers tend to be older. 50% to 75% literate. Bible portions 1976-1992. Work in progress.
TIWA, SOUTHERN [TIX] 1,631 speakers out of 2,469 population, 70.1% (1980 census). 1,588 Isleta speakers out of 2,249 population (1980 speakers); 43 Sandia speakers (1990 census), out of 220 population. 65.6% of the population under 18 years of age are speakers (67% of Isleta, 46.7% of Sandia; 1980 census). New Mexico, pueblos of Isleta and Sandia, north and south of Albuquerque. Kiowa Tanoan, Tewa-Tiwa, Tiwa. Dialects: SANDIA, ISLETA (ISLETA PUEBLO). Language use is vigorous at Isleta among adults. Many children prefer English. At Sandia most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bible portions 1981-1987. Survey needed.
TLINGIT (THLINGET, TLINKIT) [TLI] 1,215 in USA (1990 census); 135 in Canada (1981 census); 1,350 total, out of 9,500 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Southeastern Alaska and inland. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Tlingit. Most speakers are middle-aged or older; few under 40. Bilingual in English. There is growing interest in the language among the population. Typology: SOV. Coastal. Fishermen, lumbermen. Bible portions 1969.
TOLOWA (SMITH RIVER) [TOL] 5 speakers or fewer (1977 SIL). Southwestern Oregon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, Oregon, Tolowa-Galice. Only a few elderly speakers are left. Chasta Costa was a separate tribe in Oregon; now extinct. Nearly extinct.
TONKAWA [TON] No fluent speakers left out of a population of 90 (1977 SIL). North central Oklahoma. Coahuiltecan. Extinct.
TSIMSHIAN (SM'ALGYAX, TSIMPSHEAN, ZIMSHIAN, CHIMMEZYAN) [TSI] 113 in USA (1990 census); 210 or fewer mother tongue speakers in Canada (1991 Kinkade); 323 total or fewer speakers, out of 4,000 population including Canada (1977 SIL). Tip of Alaska panhandle. Penutian, Tsimshian. Several closely related dialects. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Speakers are bilingual in English. Bible portions 1885-1898.
TÜBATULABAL [TUB] 6 speakers or fewer, all over 50 years old, out of an ethnic population of 50 (1972 SIL). South central California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Tubatulabal. May be extinct (1987). Nearly extinct.
TUNICA [TUK] No speakers left out of a population of 150 (1977 SIL). Central Louisiana. Gulf. Extinct.
TUSCARORA [TUS] 30 total speakers out of 1,000 population including USA (1977 SIL); 7 or 8 speakers in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Tuscarora Reservation near Niagara Falls, New York. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Tuscarora-Nottoway. Only elderly speakers left. Dictionary. Nearly extinct.
TUTELO (SAPONI) [TTA] Lower Mississippi Valley. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Southeastern, Tutelo. Saponi was either the same or very similar to Tutelo&. Extinct.
TUTUTNI [TUU] 10 speakers or fewer, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe). Southwestern Oregon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, Oregon, Tolowa-Galice. Nearly extinct.
TWANA (SKOKOMISH) [TWA] (350 in the ethnic population; 1977 SIL). East of Puget Sound, Washington. Salishan, Central Salish, Twana. Dialects: SKOKOMISH, QUILCENE. Extinct since 1980.
UMATILLA (COLUMBIA RIVER SAHAPTIN) [UMA] 50 possible speakers out of 120 population (1977 SIL). Umatilla Reservation, Oregon. Penutian, Plateau Penutian, Sahaptin. Most or all speakers are middle aged or older.
UNAMI (DELAWARE, LENNI-LENAPE, LENAPE) [DEL] 10 or fewer speakers out of 2,000 population (1990, in OIEL 1992). The 1990 census reports 123 speakers. Northeastern and west central Oklahoma, northern New Jersey and lower Delaware Valley. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Related to Munsee in Ontario. Only elderly speakers are left. Linguistic work in progress. Nearly extinct.
UTE-SOUTHERN PAIUTE [UTE] 1,984 speakers including 20 monolinguals (1990 census), out of 5,000 population (1977 SIL), including 3 Chemehuevi (1990 census). Ute in southwestern Colorado and southeastern and northeastern Utah; Southern Paiute in southwestern Utah, northern Arizona, and southern Nevada; Chemehuevi on lower Colorado River, California. Uto-Aztecan, Northern Uto-Aztecan, Numic, Southern. Dialects: SOUTHERN PAIUTE, UTE, CHEMEHUEVI. Most adults speak the language but most younger ones do not. 75% to 100% literate. Work in progress.
WAILAKI [WLK] Round Valley Reservation, northern California. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Pacific Coast, California, Mattole-Wailaki. Extinct.
WALLA WALLA (NORTHEAST SAHAPTIN) [WAA] 100 speakers out of 700 population (1977 SIL). Umatilla Reservation, Oregon. Penutian, Plateau Penutian, Sahaptin. Most or all speakers are middle aged or older.
WAMPANOAG (MASSACHUSETT, MASSACHUSETTS, NATICK) [WAM] Ethnic group: 1,200 (1977 SIL). Southeastern Massachusetts. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Bible 1663-1685. NT 1661. Bible portions 1655-1664. Extinct.
WAPPO [WAO] 1 speaker (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin) out of a possible population of 50 (1977 SIL). California, north of the San Francisco Bay area. Yuki. Nearly extinct.
WASCO-WISHRAM (UPPER CHINOOK) [WAC] 69 speakers including 7 monolinguals (1990 census), out of a possible population of 750 (1977 SIL). North central Oregon, south central Washington. Penutian, Chinookan. Nearly extinct.
WASHO (WASHOE) [WAS] 111 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,000 population (1977 SIL). California-Nevada border southeast of Lake Tahoe. Hokan, Washo. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
WICHITA [WIC] 38 speakers (1990 census), out of 750 population (1977 SIL). West central Oklahoma. Caddoan, Northern, Wichita. Dialects: WACO, TAWAKONI. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
WINTU (WINTUN) [WIT] 10 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,000 possible population (1982 SIL). California, Clear Lake and Colusa area and northward. Penutian, California Penutian, Wintun (Copehan). Dialects: WINTU, PATWIN, NOMLAKI. Nearly extinct.
WIYOT [WIY] No speakers left out of a population of 120 (1977 SIL). Northwestern California. Algic, Wiyot. Last speaker died in 1962 (K. V. Teeter 1975). Grammar. Dictionary. Extinct.
WYANDOT (HURON, WYANDOTTE) [WYA] Northeastern Oklahoma and Canada. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Huron. Wyandot was spoken until quite recently near Sandwich, Ontario, and Wyandotte, Oklahoma. There were 2 elderly speakers in 1961. Huron was last spoken at Lorette, near Quebec City, in the mid-19th century, or 1912. Dictionary. Extinct.
YAKIMA [YAK] 3,000 speakers out of 8,000 population (1977 SIL). Yakima Valley, south central Washington. Penutian, Plateau Penutian, Sahaptin. Dialects: YAKIMA, KLIKITAT. Together with Cowlitz and Klikitat, sometimes called 'Northwest Sahaptin'. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
YANA [YNN] Upper Sacramento Valley, California. Hokan, Northern, Yana. An extinct group of varieties, including Yahi.
YAQUI [YAQ] 406 in USA including 2 monolinguals (1990 census); 16,000 in Mexico (1993 SIL); 16,400 total. Tucson and Phoenix, Arizona area. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Cahita. Partially intelligible with Mayo. NT 1977. Bible portions 1959-1966.
YOKUTS, NORTHERN FOOTHILL (LATHRUUNUN, NOPTHRINTHRES, WECHIKHIT, WICHIKIK, WÍ-CHI-KIK, YOCUT, YOKUT, YOKUTSAN, CHUKCHANSI, CHUCKCHANSI, FOOTHILL NORTH YOKUTS) [YOK] 78 speakers (1990 census), out of a possible total Yokuts population of 500 (1977 SIL). California, San Joaquin River and the slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Penutian, California Penutian, Yokuts. Dialects: KINGS RIVER (AITICHA, CHOINIMNI, CHUKAIMINA, ENTIMBICH, GASHOWU, GOSHOWI, KOCHEYALI), NORTHERN FOOTHILL (DALINCHI, DUMNA, KECHAYI, TOLTICHI), POSO CREEK (PALEUYAMI, KUMACHISI), TULE-KAWEAH (BOKNINUWAD, KAWIA, WÜKCHAMNI, YAWDANCHI, YOKOD). A separate language from other Yokuts languages. Alternate names listed may apply to all Yokuts except last three. Nearly extinct.
YOKUTS, SOUTHERN FOOTHILL (FOOTHILL SOUTH YOKUTS, BUENA VISTA YOKUTS) [YOF] California, San Joaquin Valley. Penutian, California Penutian, Yokuts. Dialects: HOMETWOLI, TUHOLI, TULAMNI. A separate language from other Yokuts. Extinct.
YOKUTS, VALLEY [YOV] Central California, southern San Joaquin Valley. Penutian, California Penutian, Yokuts. Dialects: NORTHERN VALLEY (CHAUCHILA, CHOWCHILLA, CHULAMNI), SOUTHERN VALLEY (TACHI, TATCHÉ, TELAME, TELAMI), YAUELMANI (YAWELMANI). A separate language from other Yokuts languages. Extinct.
YUCHI [YUC] 84 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,500 population (1977 SIL). Among Creek people in east central Oklahoma. Language Isolate. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
YUKI [YUK] 6 speakers (1990 census), all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe). Round Valley Reservation, northern California. Yuki. The speakers in 1962 were not fluent in the language. Probably extinct (1977 SIL). Nearly extinct.
YUPIK, CENTRAL (CENTRAL ALASKAN YUPIK, WEST ALASKA ESKIMO) [ESU] 15,000 speakers out of 17,000 population (1977 SIL). Nunivak Island, Alaska coast from Bristol Bay to Norton Sound and inland along Nushagak, Kuskokwim, and Yukon Rivers. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Yupik, Alaskan. Dialect: KUSKOKWIM ESKIMO (BETHEL YUPIK). Widely spoken by children. People are quite bilingual. There are 3 dialects, which are quite different. Grammar. NT 1956. Bible portions 1915-1987.
YUPIK, CENTRAL SIBERIAN (ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND ESKIMO) [ESS] 808 speakers (1990 census), out of 1,000 population in Alaska; 300 speakers out of 1,200 to 1,500 population in Siberia (1991 A.E. Kibrik); 1,100 total. St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Yupik, Siberian. Dialect: CHAPLINO. Language use is vigorous in Alaska. In Siberia only older people speak the language. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1974-1980. Work in progress.
YUPIK, PACIFIC GULF (ALUTIIQ, SUGPIAK ESKIMO, SUGPIAQ ESKIMO, CHUGACH ESKIMO, KONIAG-CHUGACH, SUK, SUGCESTUN, ALEUT, PACIFIC YUPIK, SOUTH ALASKA ESKIMO) [EMS] 600 speakers out of 3,000 population (1990 L.D. Kaplan). Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island, Alaskan coast from Cook Inlet to Prince William Sound. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Yupik, Alaskan. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. English is used as second language. Bible portions 1848.
YUROK [YUR] 10 or fewer speakers out of a possible 3,000 to 4,500 population (1982 SIL). Northwestern California. Algic, Yurok. Few if any full bloods younger than 20 years old. Nearly extinct.
ZUNI (ZUÑI) [ZUN] 6,413 speakers including 31 monolinguals. 85.5% of the population below 18 years of age were speakers, 86.2% above 18 (1980 census) (1977 SIL). New Mexico, south of Gallup. Language Isolate. Language use is vigorous. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1941-1970. Work in progress.
Part of the Ethnologue, 13th Edition, Barbara F. Grimes, Editor.
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