46,275,000 (1995). Speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages: 28,877,000, 78% of the population; Daic languages: 2,776,900 or 9.6%; Austro-Asiatic languages: 1,934,900 or 6.7%; Miao-Yao languages: 6,000 (1991 J. Matisoff). Union of Myanmar, Pyeidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw. Formerly Burma. Literacy rate 66% to 78%; 78.5% over 15 years old (1991). Information mainly from N. Mundhenk ABS 1973, Seindang Sakram 1980. Data accuracy estimate: C. Also includes 21,000 Malay, 1,015,000 Chinese, a few Iu Mien, 500,000 from Bangladesh and India. Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, traditional religion, Hindu. Blind population 214,440. Deaf institutions: 1. The number of languages listed for Myanmar is 111. Of those, 110 are living languages and 1 is extinct.
ACHANG (AHCHAN, ACHUNG, ATSANG, ACANG, NGAC'ANG, NGACHANG, NGO CHANG, MÖNGHSA, TAI SA') [ACN] 1,700 Maingtha in Myanmar (1983 estimate), and many others; 27,708 Achang in China (1990 census); 29,408 or more in all countries. West of the Irrawaddy River in Katha District, near Banmauk. Along the China border. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Northern. Dialect: MAINGTHA. Related to Phun, Maru, Lashi, Tsaiwa. An official nationality in China. Not a literary language. 5% to 15% literate. Polytheist, Hinayana Buddhist. Work in progress.
AKHA (KAW, EKAW, KO, AKA, IKAW, AK'A, AHKA, KHAKO, KHA KO, KHAO KHA KO, IKOR, AINI, YANI) [AKA] 200,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS); 25,000 in Thailand (1986); 130,000 in China (1990); 5,000 in Laos; 360,000 or more in all countries. Eastern paart of Kengtung Shan State. Also in Viet Nam. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya. Dialects: AKO, ASONG. Typology: SOV. Traditional religion, some Christian, Buddhist. NT 1968-1987. Bible portions 1939-1991.
ANAL (NAMFAU) [ANM] (14,507 in India; 1994 IMA). Also in India, possibly Bangladesh. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Old Kuki, Lamgang. Closest to Lamgang (Kuki Naga). Typology: SOV. NT 1983. Bible portions 1949-1983.
ANU [ANL] 700. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified. May be the same as Anal, Nung of Rawang, or some other language. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
ARAKANESE (MAGHI, MORMA, YAKAN, YAKHAING, RAKHAIN, MOGH, MAGH, MARMA, MASH, RAKHINE) [MHV] 1,875,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone); 185,000 in Bangladesh (1993); 22,870 in India (1994 IMA); 2,083,000 in all countries. Southwest, Arakan Province. Also possibly China. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Southern. One of the better known varieties of non-standard Burmese with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences from Burmese. The people wear Burmese dress. Typology: SOV. Buddhist, Muslim, Hindu. Bible portions 1914.
BISU (MBISU, MIBISU) [BII] 7,000 or more in all countries; 6,000 in China (1991 Li Yongsui); 1,000 or fewer in Thailand (1987 E. Purnell). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Phunoi. Closely related to Mpi, Pyen, and Phunoi. 36% lexical similarity with Hani, 32% with Lahu, 31% with Lisu. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
BLANG (BULANG, PULANG, PULA, KAWA, K'ALA, PLANG, KONTOI) [BLR] 1,000 to 2,000 in Myanmar (1991); 24,000 speakers out of an ethnic population of 82,280 in China (1990 census); 1,200 in Thailand (1991); 27,000 in all countries. Southeast Shan State, Muang Yong area, and recognized as having a quarter in Eastern Shan State of Kengtung. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Waic, Bulang. Some are becoming urbanized in Myanmar, Thailand, and China. An official nationality in China. Agriculturalists. Hinayana Buddhist, some Christian. Work in progress.
BURMESE (BAMA, BAMACHAKA, MYEN) [BMS] 21,553,000 first language speakers (1986), 58.41% of the population; 3,000,000 second language speakers (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin); 231,000 in Bangladesh (1993); 1,581 in USA (1970 census); 22,000,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori); 31,000,000 including second language speakers (1995 WA). South, central, and adjacent areas. Also in Macao, Malaysia, Thailand. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Southern. Dialects: MERGUESE (MERGUI, BEIK), YAW, DANU (TARUW), BURMESE, PALAW. Native speakers of Burmese seldom speak a second indigenous language. If they have one, it is usually English. Burmese is the second language of many educated speakers of other languages. It dominates the nation's publishing production. Myanma is the largest ethnic group; another is Baramagyi (Barua). Burmese script. Educated speech has many Pali borrowings. The Rawang people call them 'Myen'. National language. Typology: SOV. Scrub forest. Alluvial plains. Peasant agriculturalists, fishermen, craftsmen, industrialists. Altitude: sea level and higher. Buddhist. Braille Bible portions. Braille Scripture in progress. Bible 1835, in press (1995). NT 1832-1987. Bible portions 1815-1985.
CHAK [CKH] (909 in Bangladesh; 1981 census). Most in Arakan Blue Mts., Myanmar. Also in Bangladesh. Unclassified. Distinct from Chakma. Tropical forest. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion.
CHAUNGTHA [CCQ] 121,700 (1983 estimate). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Unclassified. Possibly a Burmese dialect. Their name means 'People of the valley' or 'People of the stream'. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
CHIN, ASHO (QIN, ASHO, ASHU, SHOA, SHO, KHYANG, KYANG) [CSH] 10,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS); 1,422 in Bangladesh (1981 census).916,000 all Chin languages in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone). Irrawaddy River, lowlands. Not in China. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Sho. Dialects: THAYETMYO (THAYETMO), MINBU, LEMYO, KHYANG. Closely related to Saingbaung Chin. Also related to Shendu and Chinbon. Lemyo, Thayetmo, Minbu, and Khyang may be separate languages. Speakers are quite bilingual in Burmese. Typology: SOV. NT 1954. Bible portions 1921-1986.
CHIN, BAWM (BAWNG, BAWN, BOM, BAWM) [BGR] 9,000 in all countries (1990 UBS); 5,773 in Bangladesh (1981 census). Falam area, Chin Hills. Also India and Bangladesh. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Bible 1989. NT 1977. Bible portions 1961.
CHIN, CHINBON (ÜTBÜ, CHINDWIN CHIN, SHO, CHINBON) [CNB] 19,600 (1983 estimate). Kanpetlet, Yaw, Seidoutia, and Paletwa townships. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Sho. About 50% lexical similarity with Asho Chin. Buddhist. Survey needed.
CHIN, CHO (CHO) [CCN] 30,000 (1991 UBS). Chin Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. NT in press (1995).
CHIN, DAAI (DAAI, DAI, M'KAANG) [DAO] 30,000 (1994 UBS). Matupi, Paletwa, Kanpetiet townships. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern. Sometimes called 'Mün' or 'Ütbü' ethnically, but those groups are linguistically distinct. They have in the past called themselves 'Mün', 'Ütbü', and 'Khyo' (Hyo, Sho, Zo) for higher status. Typology: SOV. Tropical forest. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,700 to 5,700 feet. NT in press (1995).
CHIN, FALAM (HALLAM CHIN, HALAM, FALLAM, FALAM) [HBH] 100,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS); including 9,000 Tashon; 16,000 Zanniat; 7,000 Khualshim; 4,000 Lente; 14,400 Zahao; 18,600 in Laizao (1983 estimate); 25,367 in India (1991 IMA); 125,370 or more in all countries. Falam District, Chin Hills. Also in Bangladesh. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Old Kuki, Western, Southern. Dialects: ZANNIAT, TASHON (TASHOM, SHUNKLA, SUNKHLA), LAIZO (LAISO, LAIZAO, LAIZO-SHIMHRIN), ZAHAO (ZAHAU, YAHOW, ZAHAU-SHIMHRIN, LYEN-LYEM), KHUALSHIM (KWELSHIN), LENTE (LYENTE), CHOREI. An important language. Typology: SOV. Christian. Bible 1991. NT 1951-1973. Bible portions 1933-1964.
CHIN, HAKA (HAKA, HAKHA, BAUNGSHE) [CNH] 100,000 in Myanmar (1991 UBS), including 2,000 in Zokhua, 60,100 in Lai (1983 estimate); 977 in Bangladesh; 101,000 or more in all countries. Chin Hills, Haka area. Also in India. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central, Haka. Dialects: LAI, KLANGKLANG (THLANTLANG), ZOKHUA, SHONSHE. Shonshe may be a separate language. Bible 1978. NT 1940, in press (1995). Bible portions 1920-1959.
CHIN, KHUMI (KHUMI, KHAMI, KHWEYMI, KHIMI, KHUNI) [CKM] 76,700 in Myanmar (1983 estimate) including 40,000 Matu Chin (1990 UBS); 1,188 in Bangladesh (1981 census); 78,000 or more in all countries. Arakan Hills, Akyab area. Matu are in Southern Chin State, Matupi, Mindat, and Paletwa townships, western Myanmar. A few in India. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Khami. Dialects: KHIMI, MATU (MARU, DAI-PATU), YINDI (YINDU), KHAMI, NGALA. Khami and Ngala may be separate languages. 60% literate. Typology: SOV, genitives, articles, adjectives, numerals after noun heads. Tropical forest. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 4,000 feet. Christian, traditional religion, Buddhist. NT 1959-1991. Bible portions 1935-1950. Work in progress.
CHIN, KHUMI AWA [CKA] Arakan Hills, coast areas. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Khami. The coastal dialect differs from the inland Khumi. Typology: SOV. Bible portions 1939. Survey needed.
CHIN, MARA (MARA, LAKHER, ZAO, MARAM, MIRA) [MRH] 20,000 in Myanmar (1994 IMA); 21,080 in India (1994 IMA); 41,000 in all countries. Lushai Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Lakher. Dialects: TLONGSAI, HLAWTHAI, SABEU. Close to Shendu. Typology: SOV. Bible 1956. NT 1928-1939. Bible portions 1912-1954.
CHIN, MÜN (MÜN, "CHINBOK") [MWQ] 48,100 (1983 estimate). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Southern, Mun. "Chinbok" ("Tsinbok", "Chinme", "Chinbe") is a derogatory name for this group, and not a separate language. Related to Daai Chin and Ng'men.
CHIN, NGAWN (NGAWN, NGORN) [CNW] 15,000 (1984). Chin Hills, Falam area. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Bible portions 1951. Work in progress.
CHIN, PAITE (PAITE, PAITHE, PARTE, HAIHTE, VUITE) [PCK] 8,900 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 42,715 in India (1994 IMA); 51,600 in all countries. Tiddim District, Chin Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Related to Thado Chin, Tedim Chin, Ralte, Zomi. Typology: SOV. Bible 1971. NT 1951, in press (1995). Bible portions 1940-1960.
CHIN, SENTHANG (SENTHANG, HSEMTANG) [SEZ] 18,200 (1983 estimate). Haka, Chin Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central, Unclassified. A very different Chin language. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
CHIN, SIYIN (SIYIN, SIYANG, SIZANG) [CSY] 10,000 (1991 UBS). Chin Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Close to Paite Chin. Typology: SOV. NT in press (1995).
CHIN, TAWR (TAWR, TORR) [TCP] 700 (D. Van Bik). Falam, Haka, Chin Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central, Unclassified. A completely distinct language. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
CHIN, TEDIM (TEDIM, TIDDIM) [CTD] 189,100 in Myanmar (1990 BAP); 155,000 in India (1990 BAP); 344,100 in all countries. Chin Hills, Upper Chindwin, Chin State, Tiddim area. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Dialects: SOKTE, KAMHAU (KAMHOW, KAMHAO). Other Chin languages or dialects of this area are Saizang, Teizang, Zo. Trade language of Tiddim political subdivision. Typology: SOV. Bible 1983, in press (1995). NT 1932. Bible portions 1915-1964.
CHIN, THADO (THADOU, THADO-UBIPHEI, THADO-PAO, KUKI, KUKI-THADO) [TCZ] 26,200 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 125,100 in India; 152,000 in all countries. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Dialects: BAITE, CHANGSEN, JANGSHEN, KAOKEEP, KHONGZAI, KIPGEN, LANGIUNG, SAIRANG, THANGNGEN, HAWKIP. Related to Kamhau, Ralte, Paite, Zo. Typology: SOV. Bible 1971-1994. NT 1942-1983. Bible portions 1924-1978.
CHIN, ZOTUNG (ZOTUNG, BANJOGI, BANDZHOGI) [CZT] 40,000 (1990 UBS). Chin Hills, Haka area. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central, Haka. Bible portions 1951. Work in progress.
DANAU (DANAW) [DNU] 10,000 (1984). Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Danau. It may be in Thailand or China rather than, or in addition to, Myanmar. Closest to Riang-Lang and Pale Palaung. Survey needed.
GANGTE (GANTE) [GNB] (59,000 in India; 1991 IMA). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Related to Thado Chin. Bible 1991. NT 1959. Bible portions 1952-1955.
HANI (HANHI, HAW) [HNI] 180,000 in Myanmar (1994); 500,000 in China; 30,000 in Laos (1994); 37,000 in Viet Nam (1993); 747,000 in all countries. North Shan State. Also in Viet Nam. None in Thailand. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Hani, Ha-Ya. Distinct from the Ho of India, which is Munda. Hani ethnic group: Pudu (Putu). An official nationality in China. Typology: SOV. Muslim.
HMONG NJUA (BLUE MEO, GREEN MIAO, TAK MEO, HMONG NJWA, HMONG LENG) [BLU] 10,000 in Myanmar (1987 Haiv Hmoob); 1,000,000 in China (1982); 100,000 in Laos; 33,000 in Thailand; 70,000 in USA; 2,000 possibly in France; 1,500 in French Guiana; 1,223,500 or more in all countries. Also in Viet Nam, Australia. Hmong-Mien, Hmongic, Chuanqiandian. Typology: SOV. NT 1975-1983. Bible portions 1955-1959.
HORPA [HRP] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Residual Lolo. Related to Hsifan, Manyak, Menia, Muli. Survey needed.
HPON (HPÖN, PHUN, PHÖN, PHON, MEGYAW, SAMONG) [HPO] 1,700 (1983 estimate). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Northern. Survey needed.
HRANGKHOL (RANGKHOL) [HRA] 13,000 in all countries (1992 UBS); 4,651 in India (1971). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Old Kuki, Western, Northern. Closest to Biete. Typology: SOV. NT in press (1996).
HSIFAN (SIFAN) [HSI] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Residual Lolo. May also be in China. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
INTHA (INNTHA) [INT] 141,100 (1983 estimate). Near Inle Lake in the southern Shan State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Southern. One of the better known varieties of non-standard Burmese with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences from Burmese. Typology: SOV. Fishermen, agriculturalists. Buddhist, traditional religion. Survey needed.
JINGPHO (KACHIN, JINGHPAW, SINGPO, CHINGPAW, CHINGP'O, MARIP, SINGFO) [CGP] 625,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone); 20,000 speakers in China (1990 census); 7,200 in India (1983); 652,000 in all countries. Kachin State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kachinic. Dialects: HKAKU HKA-HKU, KAURI (HKAURI, GAURI), DZILI (JILI). 'Kachin' refers to the cultural rather than the linguistic group. Jingpho serves as a lingua franca for Atsi, Lashi, and Maru. Burman Jingpho differs from Indian Jingpho. Called 'Aphu' or 'Phu' by the Rawang people. Dzili may be a separate language, or be extinct. Hkaku and Kauri only slightly different than Jingpo. 50% to 75% literate. Typology: SOV, 4 tones. Pastoralists, agriculturalists. Polytheist, some Buddhist, Christian. Bible 1927. NT 1912. Bible portions 1895-1912. Work in progress.
KADO (KADU, KATU, KATO, KUDO, ASAK, SAK, GADU, THET, THAT, MAWTEIK, PUTEIK, WONI) [KDV] 128,500 in Myanmar including 90,300 Kado, 38,200 Ganaan (1983 estimate); 100,000 in China (1990). Also in Laos. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Luish. Dialects: KADU, GANAAN (GANAN), ANDRO, SENGMAI, CHAKPA, PHAYENG. Kadu, Ganaan, Andro, Sengmai, Chakpa, and Phayeng may be separate languages. Distinct from Katu, a Mon-Khmer language of Viet Nam, China, and Laos. Bible portions 1939. Survey needed.
KAREN, BREK (BREK, BREC) [KVL] 16,600 (1983 estimate). 2,600,000 in all Karen languages in Myanmar. Mountains of Kantarawady and Kyèbogyi districts of Kayah State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Brek. Reported to be a separate language. Mostly Christian. Survey needed.
KAREN, BWE (BGHAI KAREN, BAGHI, KAYIN, YANG, BWE) [BWE] 15,700 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 1,500 in Thailand (1983); 17,200 in all countries. Kyèbogi area of southwestern Kayah State, north of Mawchi Toungoo road. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Bible portions 1857-1862.
KAREN, GEBA (GEBA, KABA, KARENBYU, KAYINBYU, WHITE KAREN) [KVQ] 40,100 (1983 estimate). Northern Kayah State and Mobyè State of the southern Shan States. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Western. Reported to be a separate language. There is some literature in Geba. Mostly Christian. Survey needed.
KAREN, GEKO (GEK'O, GHEKO, GEKHO, GHEKHOL, GHEKHU, KEKU, KEKHONG, KEKAUNGDU) [GHK] 9,500 (1983 estimate). Yamethin, Toungoo Districts, Mobyè State of the southern Shan States. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Mostly Christian. Survey needed.
KAREN, LAHTA (LAHTA) [KVT] Mobyè State of the southern Shan States. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Eastern. Reported to be a separate language.
KAREN, MANUMANAW (MANUMANAW, MONU) [KXF] 3,000 or more (1965). Western Kyèbogyi part of Kayah State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Unclassified. Reported to be a separate language. Mostly Christian. Survey needed.
KAREN, PADAUNG (PADAUNG, KAYAM) [PDU] 40,900 in Myanmar (1983 estimate). Kayah State, Mobyè State, town of Phekon in the southern Shan States, and hills east of Toungoo. A few in Thailand. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Bghai, Eastern. Reported to be a separate language. Below 5% literate. Traditional religion, Buddhist, Christian.
KAREN, PAKU (PAKU, PAGU, MONNEPWA, MONEBWA, MOPWA, THALWEPWE) [KPP] 5,300 (1983 estimate). Southern hills east of Taungoo in Kayah State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Sgaw. Dialects: BILICHI, DERMUHA. Closely related to S'gaw. Some reports indicate Paku and Mopwa are separate languages. Survey needed.
KAREN, PA'O (TAUNGTHU, BLACK KAREN, PA-U, PA'O, PA OH) [BLK] 560,000 in Myanmar (1983); 600 in Thailand (1975 SIL); 560,600 in all countries. Southwestern Shan State and east of the Gulf of Martaben in Tenasserim. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Pho, Pa'o. Dialects: SOUTHERN PA'O, NORTHERN PA'O. A black clad Karen tribe. They have an old written language unlike other Karen. Typology: SOV. Buddhist, traditional religion. Bible portions 1912-1964. Work in progress.
KAREN, PWO (PHO KAREN, TALAING KAYIN, WHITE KAREN, HPALONE, PHOLONG, MUTHEIT, SHU, PWO, PWO KAYIN) [PWO] 1,209,800 (1983 estimate). Irrawaddy delta and northern Tenasserim. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Pho, Pho-Phlon. Dialects: LEKE, PHLON. Leke and Phlon are reported to be separate languages. Most closely related to Pa'o Karen. Typology: SOV. Bible 1883-1885. NT 1860, in press (1996). Bible portions 1845-1867. Work in progress.
KAREN, S'GAW (S'GAW, S'GAU, S'GAW KAYIN, KANYAW, PAGANYAW, PWAKANYAW, WHITE KAREN, BURMESE KAREN, YANG KHAO) [KSW] 1,284,700 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 300,000 in Thailand (1987 E. Hudspith); 2,000,000 in all countries (1990 UBS). Irrawaddy delta area, Tenasserim, the Pegu range between the Irrawaddy and Sittang, the eastern hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Sgaw. Dialects: PANAPU, PALAKHI (PALACHI). Closely related to Paku. Typology: SOV. Bible 1853, in press (1996). NT 1843-1995. Bible portions 1839-1995.
KAREN, YINBAW (YINBAW) [KVU] 7,300 (1983 estimate). Shan Plateau of eastern Mobye State, and in Bawlakhè of southwest Kayah State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah. Reported to be a separate language. Buddhist, Christian, traditional religion. Survey needed.
KAREN, YINTALE (YINTALE, YINTALET) [KVY] Bawlakhè part of Kayah State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Unclassified. Reported to be a separate language. Buddhist, traditional religion. Survey needed.
KAREN, ZAYEIN (ZAYEIN, KHAUNGTOU, GAUNGTO) [KXK] 9,300 (1983 estimate). Between the towns of Mobyè and Phekon in the southern Shan State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Unclassified. Reported to be a separate language. Survey needed.
KAYAH, WESTERN (KARENNYI, RED KAREN, KAYAY) [KYU] 210,000 (1987). Kayah and Karen states, west of the Salween River. 4 temporary villages in Thailand. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Sgaw-Bghai, Kayah. Different from but related to Bwe Karen, forming a continuous chain of dialects from Thailand (Eastern Kayah) to western Kayah State. 5% to 15% literate. Work in progress.
KHAMTI (HKAMTI, KHAMPTI, KHAMTI SHAN, KHAMPTI SHAN, KHANDI SHAN, KAM TI, TAI KAM TI, TAI-KHAMTI) [KHT] 70,000 in all countries (1990 A. Diller ANU). Northwestern Myanmar. Also in Assam and possibly China. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Northwest. Dialects: ASSAM KHAMTI, NORTH BURMA KHAMTI, SINKALING HKAMTI. Related to Shan but distinct. Some similarities to northern Shan. Written with a distinctive script called Lik-Tai. They also speak Burmese and Jingpo. Typology: SOV, postpositional case-marking particle. Buddhist.
KHMU (KMHMU, KHAMU, KHMU', KHAMUK, KAMHMU, KAMU, KAMMU, MOU, LAO TERNG, POUTENG, THENG) [KJG] 500,000 in all countries. Also in Laos, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, France, USA. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Khmuic, Mal-Khmu', Khmu'. Bible portions 1918. Work in progress.
KHÜN (HKUN, KHUN SHAN, KHYN, GON SHAN, TAI KHUN, KHUEN, TAI-KHUEN) [KKH] 100,000 or more in all countries (1990 A. Diller ANU). Main Kentung Valley in the center of Shan State. Possibly not in Thailand. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Northwest. Closely related to Lü and Northern Tai or southern Shan. Their script is close to that of the Lanna, and the spoken dialects are considered close by their speakers. Different from Khouen (Khuen), a Mon-Khmer language of Laos. Buddhist. Bible portions 1938. Survey needed.
KIORR (SAAMTAAV, CON, COL) [XKO] (2,359 in Laos; 1985 F. Proschan). Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic. Survey needed.
LAHU (LOHEI, LAHUNA, LAUNA, MUSSUH, MUHSO, MUSSO) [LAH] 125,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone); 411,476 in China (1990); 2,000 to 2,500 in Laos (1973 Matisoff); 28,000 in Thailand (1993); 580,000 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Shan State, Kentung area. Also in Viet Nam. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Lahu. Dialects: NA (BLACK LAHU, MUSSER DAM, NORTHERN LAHU, LOHEIRN), NYI (RED LAHU, SOUTHERN LAHU, MUSSEH DAENG, LUHISHI, LUHUSHI), SHEHLEH. Black Lahu and Lahu Shi (Yellow Lahu, Kutsung) have difficult intelligibility. Red Lahu (Nyi) and Yellow Lahu are distinct. See separate entry for Lahu Shi. Typology: SOV. Tropical forest, scrub forest. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Some Christian. Bible 1989. NT 1932-1962. Bible portions 1924-1962.
LAHU SHI (KUTSUNG, KUCONG, YELLOW LAHU, SHI, KUI, KWI) [KDS] 9,500 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 5,000 in China (1984); a few in Thailand; 600 in Visalia, California, USA (1991 J. Matisoff); 14,500 in all countries. Kentung District. Possibly also in Laos. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha, Lahu. Difficult intelligibility with Black Lahu. A distinct language from Nyi (Red Lahu). Typology: SOV. Work in progress.
LAMA [LAY] 3,000 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish. Dialect or closely related language to Norra. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
LAOPANG (LAOPA) [LBG] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Unclassified. Possibly same as Laba, a group of Lahu near Lao-Thai border (Mundhenk 1973). Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
LASHI (LASI, LETSI, LECHI, LEQI, LASHI-MARU, CHASHAN, LACHIKWAW, AC'YE) [LSI] 55,500 in Myanmar (1983 estimate). Htawgaw Subdivision, Kachin State. Also in China. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Northern. 5% to 15% literate. Typology: SOV.
LISU (LISAW, LI-SHAW, LI-HSAW, LU-TZU, SOUTHERN LISU, YAO YEN, YAW-YEN, YAW YIN, YEH-JEN, CENTRAL LISU) [LIS] 126,000 in Myanmar (1987 estimate); 515,000 in China (1990); 16,000 in Thailand (1993); 657,000 in all countries. Around Lashio, in Wa State, around Myitkyina and Bhamo, around Putar towards Assam border, around Loilem area in Shan States. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Northern, Lisu. Dialects: HWA LISU (FLOWERY LISU), WHITE LISU, LU SHI LISU. All four dialects are in Myanmar. Black Lisu is the most different. Burmese and Thai Lisu have difficulties in communicating because of dialect differences. Yawgin, Tangsir, Hkwinhpang are dialects or ethnic groups. 50% to 75% literate. Typology: SOV. Polytheist, Christian. Bible 1968-1986. NT 1938-1978. Bible portions 1921-1950.
LOPI [LOV] Possibly also in China. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
LÜ (PAI-I, SHUI-PAI-I, LUE, TAI LU) [KHB] 200,000 in Myanmar (1981); 250,000 to 770,000 in China (1990); 20,000 in Laos (1993); 78,000 in Thailand (1993); 3,000 in Viet Nam (1959); 551,000 to 1,070,000 in all countries. Kengtung District. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Northwest. An official nationality in Viet Nam. Traditional religion, Buddhist. NT 1933, out of print. Bible portions 1921-1932. Work in progress.
LUI (LOI) [LBA] Small. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified. 'Loi' means 'mountain' in Shan, and many groups are called that. Survey needed.
LUSHAI (HUALNGO, WHELNGO, LE, LUSHEI, LUSAI) [LSH] 12,500 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 1,041 in Bangladesh (1981 census); 503,732 in India (1994 IMA); 517,200 in all countries. Western Myanmar. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Central, Mizo. Dialects: DULIEN, NGENTE, MIZO. Typology: SOV. Bible 1959-1995. NT 1916-1986. Bible portions 1898-1956.
MAHEI (MAHE, MABE) [MJA] 12,000. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha. Ethnic group or dialect of Hani or Akha. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
MANYAK [YMY] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Residual Lolo. Related to Hsifan, Horpa, Menia, Muli. Survey needed.
MARU (MATU, MALU, LAWNG, LAUNGWAW, LAUNGAW, LANSU, LANG, MULU, DISO, ZI) [MHX] 98,700 in Myanmar (1983 estimate). Kachin State, eastern border area, north Myanmar. Also in China. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Northern. Dialects: DAGO' LAWNG BIT, ZAGARAN MRAN, GAWAN NAW', HLO'LAN, LAKING, WA KHAWK, LAWNG HSU. Culture similar to Kachin. Lawng Hsu may have difficult intelligibility with the other dialects. Different than the Matu variety of Khumi Chin. 25% to 50% literate. Typology: SOV. Bible portions 1940. Work in progress.
MEITHEI (MEITHE, MITEI, MANIPURI, KATHE, KATHI, PONNA) [MNR] 6,000 in Myanmar (1931); 1,252,000 in India (1994 IMA); 92,800 in Bangladesh (1982); 1,351,000 in all countries. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Mikir-Meithei. Hindu, traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible 1984. NT 1827, in press (1995). Bible portions 1820-1956.
MENIA (MENYA) [QME] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Residual Lolo. Related to Hsifan, Horpa, Manyak, Muli. Survey needed.
MINDAT [VMT] 30,000 (1990 E. Hang). Western. Unclassified. It may be a Chin variety.
MOKEN (MAWKEN, BASING, SELUNG, SELONG, SALONG, SALON, CHAU KO') [MWT] 7,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone). Mergui Archipelago, Dung and other islands in south Myanmar. Also in Thailand. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Western Malayo-Polynesian, Sundic, Malayic, Moklen. Dialects: DUNG, JA-IT, L'BE. They live primarily on boats, but occasionally settle on islands in the area. Closest to Moklen. Related to Urak Lawoi. Typology: SVO. Tropical forest. Islands. Marine products. Altitude: Sea level. Traditional religion, Muslim. Bible portions 1913. Work in progress.
MON (TALAING, MUN, PEGUAN) [MNW] 835,100 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 70,000 to 100,000 in Thailand; 900,000 to 935,000 in all countries. Eastern delta region from east of Rangoon as far as Ye and Thailand; south Martaban, adjacent area. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Monic. Dialects: MATABAN-MOULMEIN (CENTRAL MON, MON TE), PEGU (NORTHERN MON, MON TANG), YE (SOUTHERN MON, MON NYA). Remnants of a nation that once spread over southern Myanmar and western Thailand. Ancient script. The Mon can read Burmese and are generally bilingual in Burmese. Many young people use only Burmese. Typology: SVO. Bible 1928. NT 1847. Bible portions 1843-1904.
MOPHA [MPW] Also in China. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified. May be the same as Mopwa (Monnepwa or Paku Karen). Typology: SOV.
MRU (MRO, MURUNG, NIOPRENG, MRUNG) [MRO] 34,100 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 17,811 in Bangladesh (1981 census); 14,584 in India; 66,500 in all countries. Arakan Hills and adjacent area. Also Bangladesh and India. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Mru. Typology: SOV. Traditional religion with some Buddhist elements. Bible portions 1934.
MULI [QMU] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Residual Lolo. Related to Hsifan, Horpa, Manyak, Menia. May also be in China. May be the same as Pumi of China. Survey needed.
NAGA, KHIAMNGAN (KHIAMNGAN, KALYOKENGNYU, MAKWARE, NOKAW, PARA, PONYO, WELAM) [NKY] (23,420 in India; 1994 IMA). Northwestern. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Naga. Typology: SOV. NT 1981.
NAGA, TASE (TANGSA, RANGPAN, TASE, TASEY, CHAM CHANG) [NST] 16,000 in all countries (1992 UBS); 7,071 in India (1971 census). Northwestern Myanmar. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Konyak-Bodo-Garo, Konyak. Dialects: GASHAN, HKALUK, SANGCHE, SAUKRANG, LANGSHIN, MAWRANG, MYIMU, SANGTAI, TULIM, LONGRI. Some dialects are widely divergent. Typology: SOV. NT 1992. Bible portions 1979-1982.
NORRA (NORA, NOZA, NURRA) [NOR] 10,000 (1951). Myanmar-Tibet border. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish. Dialects: NORA, BYABE, KIZOLO. Lama (3,000) may be a dialect. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
NUNG (ANUNG, ANOONG, ANU, NU, LU, LUTZU, LUTZE, KIUTZE, KHANUNG, KWINP'ANG, KHUPANG, KWINGSANG, FUCH'YE) [NUN] North Myanmar. Salween (Nu) River. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish. Dialects: CHOLO, GWAZA, MIKO. 15 or 16 dialects, mostly inherently intelligible. Different from Nung (Tai family) of Viet Nam, Laos, and China, and from Chinese Nung (Cantonese) of Viet Nam. 70% lexical similarity with Rawang. They understand the Mutwang dialect of Rawang. They may be the same as the Nu River Drung in China. Typology: SOV. Agriculturalists. Polytheist, Christian, lamaist. Work in progress.
PALAUNG, PALE (DI-ANG, NGWE PALAUNG, SILVER PALAUNG, PALE, PALAY) [PCE] 200,000 to 300,000 in all countries; 5,000 in Thailand (1989 estimate); 5,000 in China (1995). Southern Shan State area near Kalaw. 10,000 square mile area. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Palaung. Closely related to Shwe Palaung and Rumai Palaung, but a distinct language. Included under De'ang official ethnic nationality in China. Below 5% literate. Typology: SVO. Evergreen forest. Rocky, steep mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 4,000 feet. Buddhist. Work in progress.
PALAUNG, RUMAI (RUMAI) [RBB] 139,000 in all countries (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin); 2,000 in China (1995). Northern Shan State. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Palaung. Closely related to Shwe Palaung and Pale Palaung, but a distinct language. Officially included De'ang nationality in China. Typology: SVO.
PALAUNG, SHWE (TA-ANG PALAUNG, GOLDEN PALAUNG, SHWE) [SWE] 150,000 in all countries (1982); 2,000 in China (1995). Northern Shan State, centered in Nam Hsan. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Palaung. 15 Palaung dialects in Myanmar. Pale Palaung and Rumai are closely related but distinct languages. Included under De'ang official nationality in China. Shan is the lingua franca for intercommunication among Palaung groups with marked dialect differences and between Palaung and Shan, Kachin, and smaller groups such as Lisu. Typology: SVO. Mainly Buddhist.
PALI [PLL] Also India and Sri Lanka. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified. Used only as the literary language of the Buddhist Scriptures. Buddhist. NT 1835. Bible portions 1827-1911. Extinct.
PALU [PBZ] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
PARAUK (WA, PRAOK, PHALOK, BARAOG) [PRK] 348,400 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 180,000 in China (1990); 528,400 in all countries. Shan State, upper Salween River area. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Waic, Wa. A large and powerful group. Traditional culture. Related to Lawa and Vo in Thailand and China. The standard form for the Wa official nationality in China. Mountain slope. Hinayana Buddhist, some Christian. NT 1938. Bible portions 1934-1935.
PURUM (PURAM) [PUB] 300 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Old Kuki, Central. Related to Chiru, Aimol, Langrong. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
PYEN [PYY] 800 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). East central, 2 enclaves very near the Laos border, near the Kha River. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Phunoi. Closely related to Phunoi, Bisu, and Mpi. Survey needed.
RALTE [RAL] 17,000 in all countries (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin); 170 in India (1971 census). Also Assam, India. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
RAWANG (NUNG RAWANG, GANUNG-RAWANG, HKANUNG, NUNG, KRANGKU, TARON, KIUTZE, CH'OPA, CHIUTSE) [RAW] 100,000 or more in all countries (1980 Seindang Sakram). Kachin State, highlands. Also in India. Serwang is close to the Tibet border. Wadamkong is in Myanmar. Melam, Metu, Tamalu, Tukiumu are in Tibet and western Yunnan. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Nungish. Dialects: RAWANG, AGU, HPUNGSI, HTISELWANG, MATWANLY, MELAM, METU, MUTWANG, SERHTA, SERWANG, TAMALU (DAMALO), TUKIUMU, WADAMKONG, WAHKE, TARON, LONGMI, TANGSARR, LONGMI (LUNGMI), ZITHUNG, KUNLANG. 75 to 100 dialects, some of which are inherently unintelligible. Five major divisions: Longmi, Mutwang, Serwang, Tangsarr, Kwinpang (Nung); each has 20 to 30 subdialects. Dialect continuum with Nu nationality in China. Dialects near the Tibet border are harder to understand. Kunglang in India; communication cut off in 1950's. Most dialects understand Mutwang, the central, written dialect. Their second language is Burmese, third is English. Some speak Lisu and Kachin. The Chinese name is 'Kiutze' or 'Qiuze'. The Lisu name is 'Ch'opa'. 'Krangku' is a regional name of Rawang. 75% to 100% literate. Typology: SOV. Bible 1986. NT 1974-1981. Bible portions 1952-1963.
RIANG (BLACK KAREN, YANGLAM, BLACK YANG, RIANG-LANG, YIN, YANG, RIANG-LANG, LIANG SEK, YANG WAN KUN) [RIL] 20,000 in Myanmar (1955); 3,000 in China (1995); 23,000 in both countries or more. Shan State, southeastern Myanmar. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Riang. Not related to the Tripuri speaking Riang of India and Bangladesh. Not related to Black (Pa'o) Karen which is Sino-Tibetan. Bilingual in Shan. Officially included under De'ang nationality in China. Typology: SVO. Bible portions 1950.
SAMTAO (SAMTAU, SAMTUAN) [STU] (100 in China; 1993). Eastern Shan State. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic. Different from Blang. Probably Angkuic. Survey needed.
SANSU [SCA] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Lolo, Southern, Akha. A Hani group; may not be a distinct language. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
SHAN (SHA, TAI SHAN, SAM, THAI YAI, TAI YAI, GREAT THAI, TAI LUANG, "NGIO", "NGIOW", "NGIAW", "NGIAO", "NGEO") [SJN] 2,920,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone), 6% of the population (1986); 56,000 in Thailand (1993); 3,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). 350,000 Tai Mao (1990 A. Diller ANU). Shan States, southeast Myanmar. Kokant Shan is in the Kokant area in northern Wa State in the Shan States. Tai Mao is on the Burma-Yunnan border, centered at Mu'ang Mao Long or Namkham, Myanmar. Also in 1 village in China. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Northwest. Dialects: KOKANT SHAN, TAI MAO (MAO, MAW, MAU, TAI LONG, NORTHERN SHAN). A large, civilized group. Burmese Shan is spoken with regional dialect differences, but dialects are close linguistically. Tai-Khae (Khe) may be a dialect. The Tai Mao have their own script, and southern Shan is traditionally written with a Burmese-like script which does not distinguish tone or some vowels. Plains. Paddy rice, artisans (gold, silver, blacksmiths), shopkeepers. Buddhist. Bible 1892. NT 1882-1994. Bible portions 1871-1994.
TAI LOI (LOI, TAILOI, WAKUT, MONGLWE) [TLQ] 1,500 in all countries (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Namkham, in the northeast corner near the Laos and Chinese borders. Doi is across the border in Laos. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Angkuic. Dialects: TAI LOI, DOI. Closest to Pale Palaung, but with a lot of sound changes, separating it from Palaung in China also. Typology: Non-tonal. Mountain slope. Survey needed.
TAI NÜA (TAI NEUA, CHINESE SHAN, TAI KONG) [TDD] 72,400 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 250,000 in China (1990); 120,000 in Laos (1990 A. Diller); 442,400 in all countries. Also possibly in northern Viet Nam. Daic, Tai, Southwestern, East Central, Northwest. The Laos dialect is different. Called 'Dehong Dai' in China. Bible portions 1931-1948. Survey needed.
TAMAN [TCL] 10,000. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kachinic. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
TAUNGYO (TARU, TAVOYA, TAVOYAN, DAWE, DAWAI, TAWE-TAVOY, TORU) [TCO] 443,400 (1983 estimate). Vicinity of Taunggyi, Shan State southward to Tavoy, Tenasserim State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Southern. Related to Burmese. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
TAVOYAN [TVN] Southeast. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Southern. One of the better known varieties of non-standard Burmese with profound pronunciation and vocabulary differences from Burmese. Typology: SOV. Buddhist. Survey needed.
VO (WA, K'AWA, KAWA, VA, WA PWI, WAKUT) [WBM] 558,000 in Myanmar (1993 Johnstone); 60,000 in China (1990); 618,000 in all countries. Shan State, upper Salween River area. Kentung Wa are in or around Kentung City in southern Wa area. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Western Palaungic, Waic, Wa. Dialects: WA LON, WU, KENTUNG WA, SON, EN, LA. Related to Lawa and Parauk in Thailand and China. 'Wa Pwi' means 'Wa people'. Kentung Wa is more closely related to Lawa than are the northern dialects. En and Son are very different from each other. Son, En, and La may be separate languages. 'Kawa' may refer to Blang. An official nationality in China. Typology: SVO. Defoliated into scrub forest. Mountain slope, plateau. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 3,000 to 6,000 feet. Traditional religion, Christian, Buddhist. Survey needed.
WELAUNG [WEL] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
WEWAW [WEA] Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Karen, Unclassified. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
YANGBYE (YANBE, YANGYE, YANBYE) [YBD] 810,300 (1983 estimate). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Southern. Typology: SOV.
YINCHIA (STRIPED KAREN, YINNET, BLACK RIANG, RANEI) [YIN] 4,000 (1974 Hackett). Shan State south. Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer, Northern Mon-Khmer, Palaungic, Eastern Palaungic, Riang. Related to Riang Lang and Wa. Not Karen linguistically. Typology: SVO.
YOS (YO, YOTE) [YOS] 3,400 (1983 estimate). Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. Different from Mizo Chin. Typology: SOV. Survey needed.
ZAIWA (TSAIWA, ATSI, ATSI-MARU, ATSHI, ATZI, SZI, AZI, ACI) [ATB] 13,200 in Myanmar (1983 estimate); 70,000 in China (1990 J-O Svantesson); 83,200 in all countries. Kachin State. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Burmese-Lolo, Burmish, Northern. Dialects: TSAIWA (ZAIWA), LANGWA, POLO. Use Jingpo as lingua franca. Closely related to Lashi and Maru. Also related to Phun, Achang. Dialects have only minor phonological differences. 50% to 75% literate. Typology: SOV. Tropical forest. Mountain slope, interfluvial. Peasant agriculturalists. Bible portions 1939-1951.
ZOME (ZORNI, ZOMI, ZOU, ZO, KUKI CHIN) [ZOM] 30,000 in Myanmar; 16,400 in India (1994 IMA); 46,400 in all countries. Chin State, Tiddim, Chin Hills. Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Baric, Kuki-Naga, Kuki-Chin, Northern. 'Zomi' is a general name for all Chin, but is also used for this specific group. Typology: SOV. Bible 1992. NT 1967-1981. Bible portions 1981.
Part of the Ethnologue, 13th Edition, Barbara F. Grimes, Editor.
Copyright © 1996, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Inc. All rights reserved.
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