1,500,000 to 1,700,000 (1987). Information mainly from SIL. Data accuracy estimate: A2, B. The number of languages listed for Indonesia, Maluku is 131. Of those, 128 are living languages and 3 are extinct.
ALUNE (SAPALEWA, PATASIWA ALFOEREN) [ALP] 13,000 to 15,000 (1987 SIL). 5 villages in Seram Barat District, and 22 villages in Kairatu and Taniwel districts, west Seram, central Maluku. 27 villages total. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Ulat Inai. Dialects: KAIRATU, CENTRAL WEST ALUNE (NINIARI-PIRU-RIRING-LUMOLI), SOUTH ALUNE (RAMBATU-MANUSSA-RUMBERU), NORTH COASTAL ALUNE (NIKULKAN-MURNATEN-WAKOLO), CENTRAL EAST ALUNE (BURIAH-WETH-LATURAKE). The largest language in west Seram. The people in the interior, who are the majority, use the language daily. Usage in the coastal villages is not as vigorous. 77% to 91% lexical similarity among dialects. The southern dialect in Kairatu village is nearly extinct. Rambatu dialect is reported to be prestigious. Kawe may be a dialect. Related to Nakaela and Lisabata-Nuniali. 64% lexical similarity with Lisabata-Nuniali, 63% with Hulung and Naka'ela. Access by boat from Ambon. 15% to 25% literate. Christian. Bible portions 1991. Work in progress.
AMAHAI (AMAHEI) [AMQ] 50 speakers (1987 SIL). 4 villages near Masohi, southwest Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Elpaputi. Dialects: MAKARIKI, RUTAH, SOAHUKU. 87% lexical similarity between the villages of Makariki and Rutah; probably two languages. Language chain with Iha and Kaibobo. Also related to Elpaputih and Nusa Laut. 59% to 64% to 69% lexical similarity with Saparua, 59% with Kamarian, 58% with Kaibobo, 52% with Piru, Luhu, and Hulung, 50% with Alune, 49% with Naka'ela, 47% with Lisabata-Nunialiand South Wemale, 45% with North Wemale and Nuaulu, 44% with Buano and Saleman. Access by boat. Muslim, Christian. Nearly extinct.
AMBELAU (AMBLAU) [AMV] 5,700 (1989 C. Grimes SIL 1989). Ambelau Island off the southeastern coast of Buru Island. Wae Tawa village on the coast of Buru, opposite Ambelau. 8 villages. Central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Ambelau. Access by sea. Schools through junior high on Island. Wild pigs and rocky terrain on Ambelau make cultivation impossible; that is done in Wae Tawa village on Buru Island. Island, rocky, flat. Clove cultivation; agriculturalists: vegetables, tubers; copra production. Muslim.
APUTAI (ILPUTIH, OPOTAI, WELEMUR, TUTUNOHAN) [APX] 150 (1990 Hinton SIL). Wetar Island, Ilputih village, south central Wetar coast, and Lurang village, north central Wetar coast, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Wetar. 79% lexical similarity with Perai, 74% with Tugun, 69% with Iliun, 57% with Talur. Welemur dialect is extinct. Speakers in Ilputih also speak Talur. Coastal. Survey needed.
ASILULU [ASL] 8,756 (1987 SIL). Asilulu, Ureng, Negeri Lima villages, northwest Ambon Island, and some families in villages on the south coast of the Hoamoal Peninsula in West Seram. Also spoken as second language in northwest Ambon, north and west Seram, Manipa, Boano, Kelang islands. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Asilulu. Dialects: ASILULU, URENG, NEGERI LIMA (LIMA, HENALIMA). 88% lexical similarity between Asilulu and Negeri Lima. 78% to 82% lexical similarity with Hila-Kaitetu, 72% to 73% with the Wakal dialect of Hitu, 67% to 72% with Larike-Wakasihu, 71% to 73% with Luhu on Seram. Access by sea, trail. 15% to 25% literate. Trade language. Coastal. Muslim.
BABAR, NORTH [BCD] 1,500 (1989 Taber SIL) in 6 villages. North Babar Islands, east of Timor, south Maluku. 6 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, North. Access by foot, boat. Reported dialect variation. Vigorous language use. Coastal. Agriculturalists: maize, cosbi; fishermen. Christian.
BABAR, SOUTHEAST [VBB] 3,325 (1989 Taber SIL). Southeast Babar Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar. Survey needed.
BANDA [BND] 3,000 (1987 SIL). West and northeastern side of Kei Besar Island in Kei Islands, villages of Banda-Eli and Banda-Elat, south Maluku. There may be a third village. The people originally came from the Banda Islands, but the language is no longer spoken there. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser. Dialects: ELI, ELAT. Banda used for all purposes among themselves. Second language is Kei. Distinct from other languages of south Maluku. Muslim.
BARAKAI (WORKAI) [BAJ] 4,300 (1995 J. Hughes). Barakai Island, southeast Aru Islands; 4 villages on Barakai Island (Longgar, Apara, Bemun, and Mesiang) and one on Gomo-Gomo Island northeast of Barakai, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Dialects: BARAKAI, MESIANG. Language use is vigorous. Closely related to Karey, 70% lexical similarity with Batuley. Christian, Muslim, traditional religion.
BATI (GAH) [BVT] 3,500 (1989 Loski). Eastern Seram Island along the coast between Kian Darat and Keleser, and in the interior. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser, Geser-Gorom. Related to Geser and Watubela. Strong separation of ethnolinguistic identity with Geser. Many claim to be bilingual in Geser. Muslim. Survey needed.
BATULEY (WATULAI, GWATALEY) [BAY] 3,840 excluding Mariri (1995 J. Hughes). 7 villages in Aru on small islands off the east coast of Wokam Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Language use is vigorous. Fairly closely related to Kompane to the north and Lola to the south, slightly more distant from Dobel, and 70% lexical similarity with Barakai and Karey. It has 81% lexical similarity with Mariri, and Batuley speakers consider it to be a separate language. Muslim (5 southern villages), Christian (3 northern villages).
BENGGOI (BENGOI, KOBI-BENGGOI, UHEI-KACLAKIN, UHEI KACHLAKAN, UHEI-KAHLAKIM, ISAL) [BGY] 350 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). North coast, Werinama and Bula districts, east Seram, central Maluku, 3 villages (Benggoi, Balakeo, Lesa). Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti. Dialects: LESA, BENGGOI, BALAKEO. 70% lexical similarity among 'dialects'; 54% to 66% with Liana-Seti, 46% to 50% with Salas Gunung, 32% to 46% with Manusela. 'Isal' was given by Salzner in the area where Benggoi is located; the name is not used now. Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
BOANO (BUANO) [BZN] 3,240 (1982). Boano Island west of Seram, mainly in North Buano village, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Hoamoal, East. Language use is vigorous in north Boano. It may be extinct in southern Boano. Related to Larike-Wakasihu. 60% lexical similarity with Luhu, 61% with Lisabata-Nuniali (closest). Muslim (northern Boano), Christian (southern Boano).
BOBOT (WERINAMA, HATUMETEN, ATIAHU, AHTIAGO, NTAU) [BTY] 4,500 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Southeast Seram, Werinama District, from the village of Atiahu to Kota Baru, and Tunsai village in the Liana area, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Bobot. Atiahu is a village name, not a dialect. 44% lexical similarity with Sepa and Teluti, 42% with Atamanu. Coastal. Muslim.
BULI [BZQ] 1,800 to 2,000 (1983 C. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, central Halmahera, east coast, three villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast. Dialects: BULI, WAYAMLI (WAJAMLI, JAWANLI). Access by sea only; no roads, few boats. Several communities of over 100 dwellings. Coconut plantations. Muslim, Christian.
BURU (BOEROE, BURUESE) [MHS] 32,980, including 6,622 Wae Sama, 9,600 Masarete, 14,258 Rana, 500 Fogi, and 2,000 in Ambon (1989 C. Grimes SIL). South and southeast Buru Island, central Maluku, Ambon, Jakarta, and the Netherlands. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru. Dialects: MASARETE (SOUTH BURU), WAE SAMA (WAESAMA), CENTRAL BURU (RANA, WAE GEREN, WAE KABO), FOGI (LI EMTEBAN, TOMAHU). 90% lexical similarity between Masarete and Wae Sama, 88% between Masarete and Rana, 80% between Wae Sama and Rana, 68% between Li Enyorot (Lisela) and Masarete, 48% between Liliali and Masarete, 45% between Kayeli and Masarete, 44% between Ambelau and Masarete, 27% to 33% between Buru and the languages of Sula. There are word taboos and complex intermarriage patterns on the island. Li Garan is a special taboo dialect spoken by the Rana people (3,000 to 5,000 users). Vigorous language use in most areas (not Lisela). Fogi has apparently undergone complete shift to Ambonese Malay. Grammar. Access by sea from Ambon. Typology: SVO; prepositions; genitives before nouns; predominantly head marking; CV, CVC, V, VC; non-tonal. Levels of bilingualism for Ambonese Malay: 0:15%, 1:20%, 2:50%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:0%; Indonesian: 0:15%, 1:40%, 2:35%, 3:7%, 4:3%, 5:0%. Coastal, mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists, cloves, copra. Altitude: 0 to 5,000 feet. Traditional religion, Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1904-1991. Work in progress.
DAI [DIJ] 808 (1981 Wurm and Hattori); 3 villages. South, Dai and Babar islands; Dai is 15 miles north of Babar. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, North. 72% lexical similarity with Dawera-Daweloor (closest), 71% with Nakarahamto, 49% with Masela-South Babar, 48% with Tepa (Luang). No dialect variation. Language use is vigorous. Second language is Malay. Access by sea. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: maize, cosbi; fishermen. Altitude: sea level. Christian.
DAMAR, EAST (SOUTH DAMAR) [DMR] 2,800 (1990 SIL). Six villages along the east side of Damar Island, north and east of Roma Island, north of the eastern tip of Timor Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, East Damar. Not intelligible with West Damar.
DAMAR, WEST (NORTH DAMAR) [DRN] 800 (1987 SIL). Two villages on the north side of Damar Island, north of the eastern tip of Timor Island, south Maluku, Indonesia. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, West Damar. Not intelligible with East Damar.
DAWERA-DAWELOOR (DAVELOR) [DDW] 1,500 or fewer (1989 Taber SIL). South Maluku, six villages on Dawera and Daweloor islands. The islands are 11 miles northeast of Babar Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, North. Minor dialect differences. Vigorous language use. Malay is speakers' second language. Access by sea. Coastal. Agriculturalists: maize, cosbi; fishermen. Altitude: sea level. Christian.
DOBEL (KOBRO'OR, KOBROOR, DOIBEL) [KVO] 7,000 (1995 J. Hughes). Aru Islands, along the whole east coast of Kobror Island, one village in southeast Wokam Island, 4 villages on both sides of the eastern half of Barakai Strait (on both Kobror Islands and Koba Island), and 2 villages in central Kobror Island. 18 villages. Southeast Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Dialects: INLAND DOBEL, SOUTHEAST DOBEL, NORTHEAST DOBEL. Language use is vigorous. Ambonese Malay is used with outsiders. Some pre-school children do not know Ambonese Malay. At least three dialects. Koba has 78% to 86% lexical similarity with Dobel; further intelligibility testing needed. Related to Lola and Lorang. 25% to 50% literate. Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1991. Work in progress.
ELPAPUTIH (ELPAPUTI) [ELP] West Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Elpaputi. Closest to Nusalaut, Amahai. Survey needed.
EMPLAWAS [EMW] 250 (1989 Taber SIL). Emplawas village, southwest Babar Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Southwest Babar. Survey needed.
FORDATA (LARAT, VAI TNEBAR) [FRD] 50,000 including 25,000 in the language area, 25,000 throughout Indonesia (1995 SIL). Southeast Maluku, northern Tanimbar Islands of the Fordata, Larat, the Molu-Maru group, a few villages on the northwest part of Yamdena, and on Seira off the west coast of Yamdena. 30 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Kei-Tanimbar, Kei-Fordata. Dialects: FODATA-LARAT I, FORDATA-LARAT II, MOLO-MARU, SERA. Language use is vigorous. Seira is the most divergent dialect. 68% lexical similarity with Kei. 50% to 75% literate. Elementary schools in nearly every village, secondary schools for every 3 or 4 villages. Trade language formerly of the Tanimbar Islands and the language of ritual. It is now not well known by speakers of the other three languages, except for some older people who use it for ritual. Coastal, many with reef ecosystems. Swidden agriculturalists: diversification of crops and planting cycles. Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1996. Work in progress.
GALELA [GBI] 79,000 including 41,000 Kadai, 10,000 Kadina, 24,000 Morotai, and 4,000 Sopi (1990 SIL). North Maluku, Galela Bay and north of Tobelo to the northern tip of Halmahera, Morotai Island except southeast quadrant, islands of Gunage and Moari near Kayoa, Bacan, Obi, scattered along the southwest coast of Halmahera. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Galela-Loloda. Dialects: KADAI, KADINA, MOROTAI, SOPI. Vigorous use of language in daily communication. Speakers are bilingual in Indonesian. Laba may be a dialect. Speakers have 65% intelligibility of Loloda, Loloda 85% of Galela. Access by paved road from Tobelo city. Sea connections to Ternate and Tobelo. Paved commercial airstrip. 50% to 75% literate. Dictionary. Grammar. Agriculturalists, fishermen. Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1990-1991. Work in progress.
GAMKONORA [GAK] 1,500 (1987 Voorhoeve and Visser). North Halmahera, a few villages along the coast to the south of the Ibu area, north Maluku. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Sahu. 81% lexical similarity with Waioli. Intelligibility testing needed with languages in Sahu subgroup. Access by sea or land from Jailolo. Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
GANE (GANI, GIMAN) [GZN] 2,900 (1982 Teljeur). North Maluku, Halmahera Island, south part of southern peninsula. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, East Makian-Gane. Close to East Makian and Kayoa. Language attitudes are positive. Access by sea only. Muslim. Survey needed.
GEBE (GEBI) [GEI] 1,000 to 3,000 in four villages (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, Gebe, Yoi'umiyal, and Gag Islands between southern Halmahera and Waigeo Island (Irian Jaya). Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, West New Guinea, Cenderawasih Bay, Raja Ampat. Dialect: UMERA. 44% lexical similarity with Patani. Intelligibility testing needed with languages of the Raja Ampat Islands of Irian Jaya. Language used in daily communication. Bilingualism in Indonesian increasing because of mining operation and schools. A school in each village. Muslim. Survey needed.
GESER-GOROM (GESER, GESA, GOROM, GORAM, GORAN, GORONG, SERAM, SERAN, SERAN LAUT) [GES] 36,500 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Eastern end of Seram, and the Gorom Islands. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser, Geser-Gorom. Dialects: GORAM LAUT, MINA MINA GORONG, KELIMURI. 73% to 93% lexical similarity among dialects, 51% to 61% with Watubela. 50% to 75% literate. Muslim.
GORAP [GOQ] 1,000 (1992 SIL). North Maluku, Morotai Island, Pilowo and Waringin villages; Central Halmahera, Bobane and Igo villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Unclassified. Reported to be a mixed language, including Ternatan and Malay words, with different word order from other languages of north Halmahera or the Austronesian languages. Reported to be in daily use. 85% lexical similarity with Indonesian, but understanding is limited. Speakers consider Sulawesi to be their ancestral homeland. Survey needed.
HARUKU [HRK] 18,219 (1989 SIL). Haruku Island, Lease Islands, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay. Dialects: HULALIU, PELAUW, KAILOLO, ROHOMONI. Each village is a separate dialect. 81% to 92% lexical similarity among dialects. 74% to 76% lexical similarity with Tulehu, 67% to 71% with Saparua. Ambonese Malay is the speakers' second language. Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
HITU [HIT] 15,965 (1987 SIL). 5 villages: Wakal, Hitu, Mamala, Morela, and Hila; Hitu Peninsula, Ambon Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Ambon. Dialects: WAKAL, MORELA, MAMALA, HITU, HILA. Language use is moderate to vigorous. 67% to 82% lexical similarity with Seit-Kaitetu, 74% to 82% with Tulehu. Access by road. Muslim, Christian.
HORURU [HRR] Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram. Hulung may be related. This may be an alternate name for another language. Survey needed.
HOTI [HTI] 10 elderly speakers, possibly (1987 SIL). East Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, East Seram. Survey needed.
HUAULU (ALAKAMAT, BAHASA ASLI) [HUD] 300 (1987 SIL). East Seram, central Maluku, northwest of Manusela, 10 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti. 64% to 72% lexical similarity with Manusela dialects. Culturally distinct from Manusela. Traditional religion. Work in progress.
HUKUMINA (BAMBAA) [HUW] 1 (1989 SIL). Central Maluku, northwest Buru Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Unclassified. The one speaker is 80 years old (1989). Nearly extinct.
HULUNG [HUK] 10 or fewer (1991 Y. Taguchi SIL). Hulung village, and Sauweli hamlet, west Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Hulung. 67% lexical similarity with Lisabata-Nuniali, 66% with Naka'ela and South Wemale, 63% with Alune, 59% with North Wemale. Access by boat. Christian. Nearly extinct.
IBU [IBU] A few elderly speakers (1987 Voorhoeve and Visser 1987); 50 to 200 in the ethnic group (1984). North Maluku, northern Halmahera Island, mouth of Ibu River, villages of Gamlamo and Gamici. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Sahu. May be inherently intelligible with Sahu. Nearly extinct.
ILIUN (HAHUTAU, HAHUTAN, LIMERA, ILMAUMAU, ERAI) [ILU] 1,400 or more (1990 Hinton SIL). Wetar Island, villages of Telemar, Karbubu, Klishatu, Ilmaumau, Erai (Eray), Nabar, and Esulit on the west end of Wetar, and Istutun village on Lirang Island off the southwest tip of Wetar, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Wetar. 73% lexical similarity with Tugun, 69% with Aputai, 67% with Perai, 51% with Talur. All speakers now speak the Iliun dialect; Jeh and Juru are extinct. Survey needed.
IMROING (IMROIN) [IMR] 450 (1989 Taber SIL). Village of Imroing, southwest Babar Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Southwest Babar. Survey needed.
KADAI [KZD] 300 to 500 (1982 SIL). North Maluku, Sula Islands, Taliabu Island, interior mountains. Possibly in the mountains of Mangole Island also. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula, Taliabo. The government wants to resettle them along the coast. May be intelligible with Taliabu. Traditional religion. Survey needed.
KAIBOBO (KAIBUBU) [KZB] 500 (1983 Collins and Voorhoeve). Kaibobo, Hatusua, Waisamu, Kamarian, Seruawan, Tihulale, and Rumahkay villages in Kairatu District; 8 villages total, Piru Bay, west Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East. Dialects: KAIBOBO, HATUSUA. Language use may be shifting to Ambonese Malay in some villages. 82% to 88% lexical similarity between Kaibobo and Hatusua, 75% with Kamarian, 62% to 65% with Saparua, 62% with Piru, 58% to 62% with Luhu, 61% with Naka'ela. Related to Lisabata-Nuniali and Saparua. Access by boat. Christian. Survey needed.
KAMARIAN (KAMARIANG, SERUAWAN) [KZX] 10 or fewer (1987 SIL). West Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Kamarian. 75% lexical similarity with Kaibobo, 67% with Saparua, 60% with Lisabata-Nuniali, 59% with Amahai, Piru, Naka'ela, and Hulung. Nearly extinct.
KAO (KAU, KA'U) [KAX] 200 to 400 possibly (1983 C. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, interior North Halmahera, around the town of Kao, near the mouth of the Kao River. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Kao River. Could marginally be a dialect of Pagu, but relates uniquely to other languages in the Kao River subbranch. Intelligibility testing needed. Access by air. 50% to 75% literate. Survey needed.
KAREY (KEREI, KREI) [KYD] 950 (1995 J. Hughes). Village of Karey, east coast of Tarangan Island, southern Aru Islands, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. May be intelligible with Barakai. 70% lexical similarity with East Tarangan and Batuley. Language use is vigorous. Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
KAYELI (KAJELI, CAJELI, CAELI, GAELI) [KZL] 3 speakers out of 800 in the ethnic group (1995). Not used for 3 decades by the speakers (1989 C. Grimes SIL). Southern Namlea Bay, north Buru Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Kayeli. Dialects: KAYELI, LELIALI (LILIALI), LUMAETE (LUMAITI, MUMAITE, LUMARA). Speakers are over 60 years old. Other people have completed shift to Ambonese Malay as first language. The ethnic group continues to function. Lumaete became extinct recently and Leliali became extinct in March, 1989. Muslim. Nearly extinct.
KEI (EVAV, KAI) [KEI] 86,000 (1990 SIL). Kei Kecil, Kei Besar, and surrounding islands, except the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kei Besar, and the Kur Islands, where Kei is used as a lingua franca. About 207 villages. Southeast Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Kei-Tanimbar, Kei-Fordata. Dialects: KEI KECIL, KEI BESAR, TAYANDO, TANIMBAR KEI (ATNEBAR), TA'AM. Used in everyday life. 60% lexical similarity with Fordata. Tanimbar Kei is closer to Fordata than the other Kei dialects. 50% to 75% literate. Dictionaries. Grammars. Trade language of speakers of Banda and Kur, and outsiders like the ethnic Chinese and Butonese who live in Kei. Agriculturalists: millet. Muslim, Christian, traditional religion. Work in progress.
KISAR (MEHER, YOTOWAWA) [KJE] 20,000 (1995 SIL). Kisar Island northeast of Timor Island, 19 villages, villages of Hila and Likagraha (Solath) on Roma Island, 3 villages on Wetar Island (Amau, Naumatan, Hi'ai), and several hundred in Ambon city, Dili and Kupang. Used as a second language by a handful of Oirata speakers on Kisar. South Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Kisar-Roma. 14% lexical similarity with Oirata, which has sometimes been called a dialect. Called Yotowawa or Meher locally. 25% to 50% literate. Trade language. Christian. Bible portions 1995. Work in progress.
KOBA [KPD] 520 (1995 SIL). Aru Islands, southeast Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. 78% to 86% lexical similarity with Dobel; intelligibility of Dobel is limited.
KOLA (WARILAU, KULAHA, MARLASI) [KVV] 7,700 (1995 J. Hughes). North Aru Islands, all around the coast of Kola Island and adjacent islands, south Maluku. 22 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Language use is vigorous. Outsiders want to learn it. Intelligibility testing showed Marlasi is intelligible to Kompane speakers, but with some possible adaptation of literature needed. 77% lexical similarity with Kompane, 70% with Ujir. 25% to 50% literate. Work in progress.
KOMPANE (KOMFANA, KONGAMPANI) [KVP] 330 (1995 J. Hughes). Northeast Aru in Kompane village on the east coast of Kongan Island, south of Kola and north of Wokam islands, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Closely related to Kola, linguistically between Kola and Batuley. Intelligibility of Kola is good, but some adaptation of literature may be needed. Language use is vigorous. Muslim. Survey needed.
KUR [KUV] 2,000 to 3,000 possibly (1985 J. Hughes SIL). Kur Island and nearby islands, western Kei Kecil District, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Teor-Kur. Separate language from Kei; 47% to 50% lexical similarity. Kur has 71% to 83% lexical similarity with Teor, 41% with Watubela, 38% with Geser. Survey needed to determine boundaries of intelligibility with dialects to the north and the central dialect, and with Teor. Language use is vigorous. Muslim.
LABA (SOUTH LOLODA, KEDI) [LAU] 2,000 (1991 H. Shelden SIL). North Maluku, 4 villages to the interior of the south end of Loloda District. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Galela-Loloda. Phonology like Galela; 75% lexical similarity, 70% intelligibility; 78% lexical similarity with Loloda, 75% intelligibility. Christian. Survey needed.
LAHA (CENTRAL AMBON) [LAD] 3,894 (1987 SIL). Laha village, and several nearby smaller villages, south central coast of Ambon Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Ambon. Related to Seram languages, but distinct from Manusela. 64% to 66% lexical similarity with Asilulu and Hila-Kaitetu (closest). Parents encourage children to speak Laha. Access by air, sea, land. Muslim, Christian.
LARIKE-WAKASIHU [ALO] 12,557 (1987 SIL). Larike, Wakasihu, Tapi, Allang, and Lai villages, southwest Hitu Peninsula, Ambon Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Hoamoal, East. Dialects: ALLANG, WAKASIHU, LARIKE. 81% lexical similarity between Allang and Larike and Wakasihu, 92% between Larike and Wakasihu. Only older people in Allang, Allang Asaude, Uraur, and Urusana still speak Allang, but apparently do not use it. Wakasihu may need separate literature from Larike. 68% to 71% lexical similarity with Asilulu, 67% to 72% with Negeri Lima. The western end of the Ambon dialect chain. Language use is vigorous in Larike and Wakasihu, weak in Allang. 50% to 75% literate. Muslim (Larike, Wakasihu), Christian (Allang).
LATU [LTU] 2,134 (1982 SIL). Latu village, Elpaputih Bay, southwest Seram Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Saparua. 82% to 84% lexical similarity with Saparua dialects; intelligibility testing needed. Survey needed.
LETI [LTI] 7,500 (1995 M. Taber). Leti Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Luang. Marginal intelligibility with Luang; 89% lexical similarity. Matrilineal. They share a historical and cultural heritage with Luang, but maintain their own identity and local pride. They understand spoken Luang, but have difficulty with written Luang. 25% to 50% literate. Christian.
LIANA-SETI (LIANA, LIANAN, UHEI KACLAKIN, UHEI KACHLAKAN, UHEI KAHLAKIM, TEULA, LIAMBATA-KOBI) [STE] 3,000 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Eastern Teluti Bay to the north coast, districts of Seram, Bula, Werinama, and Tehoru, central Maluku, 8 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti. Dialects: "SETI", WAHAKAIM, KOBI. Language use is vigorous. Lexical similarity between Seti (westernmost and interior), and Wahakaim (near coast) is 66% to 74%, Kobi and Seti 69% to 78%, Kobi and Wahakaim 70%; 42% to 61% with Manusela; 54% to 66% with Benggoi; 48% to 58% with Salas Gunung. Speakers use the name 'Liana'; "Seti" is derogatory. Access by boat from Ambon, trail to interior villages. 25% to 50% literate. Christian. Work in progress.
LISABATA-NUNIALI (LISABATA, NUNIALI, NONIALI) [LCS] 1,830 or more (1982). Spread across the north coast of West and North Seram, 5 villages, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram. Dialects: LISABATA-TIMUR, NUNIALI, SUKARAJA, KAWA. Language use is vigorous except in Kawa. Lexical similarity between Kawa (far western) and Lisabata Timur (far eastern) is 85%; 72% with Naka'ela, 67% with Hulung, 63% with Alune. Speakers use Ambonese Malay as second language. Access by boat from Ambon. Muslim, Christian (Nuniali).
LISELA (BURU, NORTH BURU, LI ENYOROT, LIET ENJOROT, WAYAPO) [LCL] 11,922 (1989 C. Grimes SIL). Northern and eastern coastal strips of Buru Island, central Maluku. Some in Ambon. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru. Dialects: LISELA (LICELA, LICELLA), TAGALISA. Language use is not vigorous; a shift to Ambonese Malay is taking place. Access by sea, air. Tropical forest, savannah. Coastal, mountains. Swidden agriculturalists, eucalyptus oil. Altitude: 0 to 1,500 feet. Muslim, traditional religion. Survey needed.
LOLA [LCD] 830 (1995 J. Hughes). 3 villages of Lola, Warabal, and Jambuair on 3 islands east of Kobroor and Baun Islands, Aru Islands, southeast Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Dialects: LOLA, WARABAL. Linguistically between Batuley and Dobel; close to Koba. Language use is most vigorous in Warabal; in Lola some young people use Ambonese Malay among themselves. In Jambuair there are many non-Aru people, so Ambonese Malay is in common use. Muslim. Survey needed.
LOLODA (LODA, NORTH LOLODA) [LOL] 15,000 including 2,000 Bakun (1991 SIL). North Maluku, northwest coast of Halmahera. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Galela-Loloda. Dialect: BAKUN. Intelligibility with Laba is very limited. Speakers have 85% intelligibility of Galela, Galela has 65% of Loloda. Bilingualism testing is needed with Galela. Vigorous language use. Access by sea or overland from Galela. 50% to 75% literate. Grammar. Christian, Muslim. Bible portions 1915. Survey needed.
LORANG [LRN] 325 (1995 J. Hughes). Village of Lorang, center of Aru, on Koba Island. Southeast Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Closely related to Koba, and to a lesser extent to Dobel. Some similarities with Manombai, but intelligibility is lower than might be expected. Language use is vigorous. Lorang people can speak several local languages to some degree, and speak Dobel from childhood. Christian. Survey needed.
LOUN [LOX] Few speakers. North central Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Loun. Access by boat. Nearly extinct.
LUANG (LETRI LGONA, LITERI LAGONA, LGONA) [LEX] 20,000 (1995 Taber). Moa, Lakor, Luang, Sermata, Wetan, northwest Babar Islands east of Timor, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Luang. Dialects: LUANG, WETAN (WETANG), MOA, LAKOR. Intelligibility with Leti is marginal; 89% lexical similarity. Testing is needed between Wetan and Luang. Matrilineal. 15% to 25% literate. Christian. Bible portions 1995. Work in progress.
LUHU [LCQ] 6,500 (1983 Collins and Voorhoeve). Luhu village on Hoamoal Peninsula, west Seram Island, and Boano and Kelang islands, off of west Seram. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Hoamoal, West. Dialects: LUHU, BATU MERAH, KELANG. Language use is vigorous. The Batu Merah dialect is also spoken on Ambon Island is nearly extinct. Related to Manipa. 77% lexical similarity with Piru, 71% to 73% with Asilulu. Historically one language with Piru. Related to Manipa. Access by boat. Muslim.
MABA (BITJOLI, BICOLI, INGLI) [MQA] 3,000 to 7,000 (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, northern coast of southeastern peninsula of Halmahera, also in Wasilei area. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast. Intelligibility testing needed with Patani and Buli. Access by sea only. 25% to 50% literate. Muslim. Survey needed.
MAKIAN, EAST (MAKIAN TIMUR, MAKIAN DALAM) [MKY] 20,000 including 18,000 or more in East Makian, 2,000 or more in Kayoa (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). Eastern Makian Island, southern Mori Island, Kayoa Islands, west coast of south Halmahera, Bacan and Obi Islands, north Maluku. Transmigration project near Kao. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, East Makian-Gane. Dialects: EAST MAKIAN, KAYOA (KAJOA). Close to Gane. Language attitudes are positive. Access by sea. 25% to 50% literate. Muslim.
MAKIAN, WEST (MAKIAN BARAT, MAKIAN LUAR) [MQS] 12,000; 7,000 on Makian Island, 5,000 on Kayoa Islands (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). Western Makian Island, some of the Kayoa Islands, areas along the west coast of southern Halmahera, north Maluku. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, West Makian. Language isolate within north Halmahera. Formerly classified as Austronesian. Access by sea. 25% to 50% literate. Muslim.
MALAY, AMBONESE (MELAYU AMBON, AMBONESE) [ABS] 200,000 first language speakers, other second language speakers in Indonesia (1987 J. Collins); 45,000 in Netherlands (1993 Johnstone); 20 to 25 or more in USA; 235,000 in all countries. Central Maluku, Ambon, Haruku, Nusa Laut, Saparua Islands, along the coastal areas of Seram, and southern Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Western Malayo-Polynesian, Sundic, Malayic, Malayan, Local Malay. 81% lexical similarity with Standard Malay. Marginal intelligibility with Indonesian. Difficult intelligibility with Ternate Malay; speakers switch to Indonesian. Bilingualism in Indonesian is high around Ambon city. Developed from Bazaar Malay and still reflects some archaic forms. Further diverged by adapting to the vernaculars of central Maluku. Considered to be a Malay-based creole by B.D. Grimes (1988, 1991) and J. Holm (1989:581-3). 50% to 75% literate. Trade language. Christian since early 16th century. NT 1877-1883. Survey needed.
MALAY, BACANESE (BACAN, BATJAN) [BTJ] 2,500 mother tongue speakers (1991 H. Shelden SIL); over 1,000 in Labuha (1987 J. Collins). North Maluku, Bacan Island west of southern Halmahera. Centered around the site of the former palace in Labuha, 1 village within about 5 km. walking distance from Labuha, another 1 hour by dugout (Indomut), and half the population of Waya and Lele villages on Mandioli Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Western Malayo-Polynesian, Sundic, Malayic, Malayan, Local Malay. No evidence of an earlier indigenous language (J. Collins). The Portuguese cut off Bacan from other Malay in 1515. No historic connection with Borneo since. No second language speakers. Junior high school in Labuha. Access by sea and air from Ternate and Labuha. 50% to 75% literate. Agriculturalists (rural speakers). Muslim. Survey needed.
MALAY, NORTH MOLUCCAN (TERNATE MALAY) [MAX] A few hundred mother tongue speakers (1987 J. Collins). North Maluku, Halmahera, Sula, and Obi Islands. Mother tongue speakers in one neighborhood of Labuha (Christian), and some other families with parents of different ethnic origins. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Western Malayo-Polynesian, Sundic, Malayic, Malayan, Local Malay. A few small communities speak it as mother tongue. Most speakers use it as a second language. Intelligibility testing needed with Indonesian and Menadonese Malay, a close relative. Many bilinguals are competent in it at Foreign Service Institute levels 2 or 3. Used between speakers of different languages. Used orally, not written. 50% to 75% literate. Trade language. Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
MANGOLE (MANGOLI, SULA MANGOLI) [MQC] 4,000 to 7,000 (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, southern coast of Mangole Island and northern tip of Sulabesi of the Sula Islands. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula. Intelligibility testing needed with dialects of Sula. Access by sea from Sanana. Muslim. Survey needed.
MANIPA (SOOW HUHELIA) [MQP] 1,500 (1983 Collins and Voorhoeve). Manipa Island west of Seram, central Maluku, 4 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East. 72% lexical similarity with Luhu, 64% with Piru, 60% to 62% with Hitu, 60% to 61% with Tulehu and Asilulu, 58% to 61% with Hila-Kaitetu, 55% to 60% with Larike-Wakasihu, 56% with Boano and Kaibobo. Access by boat from Ambon. Muslim. Survey needed.
MANOMBAI (MANOBAI, WOKAM, WAMAR) [WOO] 7,475 (1995 J. Hughes). West coast of Wokam Island, from Wokam village southwards, in 21 villages along both sides of Manombai Strait (Sungai) as far as Wakua, and in Benjina on Kobror Island, and Gardakau on Maikor Island at the western end of Barakai Strait, and small village of Kobamar on east coast of Wokam Island. It may be no longer spoken on Wamar Island. Aru Islands, Southeast Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Language use is vigorous. Dialect survey needed. 76% lexical similarity with Lorang. Not inherently intelligible with Dobel. Christian, some Muslim.
MANUSELA (WAHAI, WAHINAMA) [WHA] 7,000 (1989 Loskii SIL). 30 villages, Manusela mountains of north Seram, and along Teluti Bay in south Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti. Dialects: KANIKEH, HATUOLU, MANEO, SOUTH MANUSELA. Language use is vigorous. Kanikeh has 66% to 74% lexical similarity with other varieties, Hatuolo 67% to 75%, Maneo 64% to 86%, Maneoratu 66% to 86%, South Manusela 67% to 80%. It may be several languages. These have 64% to 72% with Huaulu, 42% to 61% with Liana, 45% with Saleman. Grammar. Access by boat from Ambon. Mountain slope. Traditional religion, Christian, Hindu. Survey needed.
MARIRI (MAIRIRI) [MQI] 390 (1995 J. Hughes). Eastern Aru on Mariri Island east of Kobroor Island, 1 village, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. May be intelligible with Batuley; 81% lexical similarity. Language use is vigorous. Muslim. Survey needed.
MASELA, CENTRAL (CENTRAL MARSELA, MARSELA-SOUTH BABAR) [MKH] 511 (1980 de Jonge). 3 villages on Marsela Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar. Christian. Survey needed.
MASELA, EAST (EAST MARSELA) [VME] 519 (1980 de Jonge). 3 villages on Marsela Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar. Christian. Survey needed.
MASELA, WEST (WEST MARSELA) [MSS] 850 (1980 de Jonge). 5 villages on Marsela Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar. Christian. Survey needed.
MASIWANG (BONFIA) [BNF] 1,000 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Seram Island, Waru Bay area, Bula District, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Masiwang. 44% lexical similarity with Bobot, 43% with Salas Gunung, 39% with Sepa and Teluti, 36% with Liana and Atamanu. Some use Geser as second language. Grammar. Survey needed.
MODOLE (MADOLE) [MQO] 2,000 (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, interior north Halmahera Island, headwaters of Kao River. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Kao River. Dialects: NORTH MODOLE, SOUTH MODOLE. Access by foot, river from Kao. Some intermarriage with the Tobaru. Intelligibility testing needed with Pagu dialects. Minimal differences between north and south Modole. Language attitudes are positive. Christian.
MOKSELA (MAKSELA, OPSELAN) [VMS] Central Maluku, possibly east Buru Island, near Kayeli. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru. Last speaker died in 1974. Extinct.
NAKA'ELA [NAE] 5 (1985 Y. Taguchi SIL). Kairatu village, northwest Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram, Ulat Inai. Formerly lived in mountains. Reportedly decreased in number after moving down to Kairatu. 71% lexical similarity with Lisabata-Nuniali, 66% with Hulung, 63% with Alune. Access by boat from Ambon. Christian. Nearly extinct.
NILA [NIL] 1,800 (1989 Taber SIL). Transmigration area on south central Seram Island, central Maluku. 6 villages. (Originally Nila Island in south central Maluku). Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Teun-Nila-Serua, Nila-Serua. They have been moved to Seram because of volcanic activity on their island. Close to Serua. Not intelligible with Teun. Survey needed.
NUAULU, NORTH (NUAULU, PATAKAI, FATAKAI) [NNI] 500 (1990 Bolton SIL). Two villages on the north coast of central Seram Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Sawai-Nuaulu. 67% lexical similarity with South Nuaulu, 64% with Saleman. A distinct language from Huaulu.
NUAULU, SOUTH (NUAULU, PATAKAI, FATAKAI) [NXL] 1,500 (1995 Taber). 6 villages on the south coast and interior of Amahai District, Seram Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Sawai-Nuaulu. Language use is vigorous. 67% lexical similarity with North Nuaulu, 50% with South Wemale, Hulung, and Naka'ela, 48% with Saleman. Different from Huaulu. Many speakers use Sepa as second language. Some people do not speak Indonesian. 5% to 15% literate. Christian, traditional religion. Bible portions 1991-1995. Work in progress.
NUSA LAUT (NUSALAUT) [NUL] 10 speakers possibly out of an ethnic group of 2,226 (1989 SIL). Titawai village, Nusa Laut Island, Lease Islands, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Elpaputi. 69% lexical similarity with Saparua, 65% with Amahai. The language is barely used, and only by a few older people. Christian. Nearly extinct.
OIRATA (MAARO) [OIA] 1,221 (1987 SIL). East and west Oirata in southeast Kisar Island, south Maluku, and in Ambon city (several hundred). Trans-New Guinea, South Bird's Head-Timor-Alor-Pantar, Timor-Alor-Pantar, Oirata. 14% lexical similarity with other languages on Oirata, and 10% with central Maluku languages. Related to languages in east Timor, but not closely. Typology: SOV. Christian. Survey needed.
PAGU (PAGO, PAGOE) [PGU] 2,000 to 3,000 (1983 C. and B.D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, interior North Halmahera south of the Modole language area out to the mouth of the Kao River. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Kao River. Dialects: ISAM, PAGU, TOLIWIKU (TOLILIKO). Access by air to Kao and then by river. Intelligibility testing needed with Modole and Kao. 25% to 50% literate. Muslim, Christian.
PALUMATA (PALAMATA, BALAMATA) [PMC] Central Maluku, northwest Buru Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Buru. Extinct.
PATANI [PTN] 7,000 to 9,000 (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, the entire narrow tip of the southeastern peninsula of Halmahera, extending west along coast of peninsula. Nine villages: Patani, Peniti, Tepeleu, Gemya, Kipai, Wailegi, Yeisowo, Banemo, Moreala, Sibenpopu (with some Tobelo speakers). Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast. Vigorous language use in daily communication. Intelligibility testing needed with Maba. Schools. Access by sea from Ternate or Gebe. 25% to 50% literate. Swidden agriculturalists, loggers. Muslim.
PAULOHI [PLH] 50 possible speakers (1982). Central Maluku, West Seram, western shore of Elpaputih Bay in south central Seram Island, 2 villages, Kecamatan Amahai. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Solehua. Access by boat. Experienced a severe earthquake and tidal wave. Nearly extinct.
PERAI (TUTUNOHAN) [WET] 278 (1990 Hinton). Wetar Island, north of Timor, south Maluku, Uhak and Moning villages on the northeast coast. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Wetar. 79% lexical similarity with Aputai, 76% with Tugun, 67% with Iliun, 51% with Talur. Survey needed.
PIRU [PPR] 10 or fewer (1985 Y. Taguchi SIL). 1 village, west Seram Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Amalumute, Northwest Seram. 72% lexical similarity with Luhu; they are historically one language. Access by boat. People use Ambonese Malay as first or second language. Christian. Nearly extinct.
ROMA (ROMANG) [RMM] 1,700 (1991 SIL). Jerusu village, Roma Island, north of Timor Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Kisar-Roma. 25% to 50% literate. Christian.
SAHU (SA'U, SAU, SAHU'U) [SUX] 7,500; 3,500 in Tala'ai; 4,000 in Pa'disua (1987 Voorhoeve and Visser). North Maluku, southwestern north Halmahera Island. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Sahu. Dialects: PA'DISUA (PALISUA), TALA'I. Vigorous language use in daily communication. Ibu may be a dialect. Close to Waioli and Gamkonora. Intelligibility testing needed with other languages in Sahu group. Access by sea, or land from Jailolo. 25% to 50% literate. Dictionary. Grammar. Christian, Muslim. Work in progress.
SALAS (LIAMBATA, LENKAITAHE, SALAS GUNUNG) [SGU] 50 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Salas Gunung village, Seram Island, Waru Bay, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Manusela-Seti. 48% to 58% lexical similarity with Liana, 46% to 50% with Benggoi, 35% to 46% with Manusela. Most use Masiwang as second language. Christian. Survey needed.
SALEMAN (SAWAI, SELEMAN, HATUE, WAHAI) [SAU] 4,800 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). 5 villages (Saleman, Pasanea, Sawai, Besi, Wahai), north central Seram, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Sawai-Nuaulu. Language use is vigorous except in Wahai. 64% lexical similarity with North Nuaulu, 48% with South Nuaulu. Intelligibility testing of dialects needed. Access by boat from Ambon. Muslim.
SAPARUA [SPR] 10,216 (1989 SIL), including 4,519 or more in Iha. Kulur, Iha, and Siri-Sori villages on Saparua Island, and Iha, Kulur, Latu, Hualoy, and Tomalehu villages on Seram Island, Lease Islands, central Maluku. Also spoken by hundreds of Latu people in Kairatu village. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Uliase, Hatuhaha, Saparua. Dialects: KULUR, IHA-SAPARUA, IHA-SERAM, SIRI-SORI. Each village is a dialect. 86% to 89% lexical similarity among dialects; 82% to 84% with Latu, 69% with Amahai, 67% with Kamarian, 68% to 71% with Haruku, 65% with Kaibobo, 62% to 66% with Tulehu, 54% to 62% with Luhu, 49% with Piru, 54% with Naka'ela. Needs intelligibility testing among dialects. Access by boat. Muslim, Christian.
SAWAI (WEDA, WERE, WEDA-SAWAI) [SZW] 12,000 (1989 SIL). North Maluku, coastal area between southern and southeastern peninsulas of Halmahera. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Eastern Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea, South Halmahera, Southeast. Dialects: WEDA, SAWAI, KOBE. 64% lexical similarity with North Nuaulu. Different from Saleman (Sawai). Access by sea. 25% to 50% literate. Muslim, Christian. Bible portions 1994. Work in progress.
SEIT-KAITETU (HILA-KAITETU) [HIK] 10,171 (1987 SIL). Seit (Seith) and Kaitetu villages, north coast of Ambon Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, West, Asilulu. Dialects: SEIT (SEITH), KAITETU. 85% lexical similarity between Kaitetu and Seit. 78% to 82% lexical similarity with Asilulu, 67% to 74% with Tulehu. Language use is vigorous. Access by road. Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
SELARU (SALARU) [SLU] 7,000 to 9,000 (1989 Coward SIL). Tanimbar, six of seven villages on Selaru Island, half of the village of Latdalam on Yamdena Island, and Lingada village on Nus-Wotar Island off the west coast of Yamdena. 8 villages. South Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Southern. Dialect: KANDAR. Language use is vigorous. Slight dialect differences. Not closely related to other nearby languages. 25% to 50% literate. Christian. Selections 1995 Birth of Christ. Work in progress.
SELUWASAN (SELVASA, SELWASA) [SWH] 2,839, including 739 in Makatian, 2,100 in Seluwasan (1980 government report). Southwest coast of Yamdena Island, south Maluku. Three villages: Wermatang, Batu Putih, and Marantutul. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Southern. Dialects: SELUWASAN, MAKATIAN. Distinct language and culture. Makatian is quite different. Hunters. Christian.
SEPA (TAMILOUW) [SPB] 2,600 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Sepa village, Seram Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East. 79% lexical similarity between Sepa and Tamilouw, 69% to 78% with Teluti, 50% with Atamanu. Used as a second language by South Nuaulu speakers. Trade language. Survey needed.
SERILI [SVE] 328 (1980 de Jonge). Northeast Marsela Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Masela-South Babar. Christian. Survey needed.
SERUA [SRW] 2,000 (1990 SIL). Transmigration area in south central Seram Island, central Maluku. 4 villages. (Originally Serua Island in south central Maluku). Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Teun-Nila-Serua, Nila-Serua. Close to Nila. Not intelligible with Teun. Moved by the government to Seram because of volcanic activity on their island. Survey needed.
SULA (SANANA) [SZN] 20,000 (1983 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, Sula Islands, Sulabesi Island and scattered communities on the eastern and western ends and north coast of Mangole Island, and northeast coast of Buru Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula. Dialects: FAGUDU, FALAHU, FACEI (FACÉ). Vigorous language use in daily communication. Mangole is closely related. Boat and air connections to Ternate and Ambon. Muslim.
TABARU (TOBARU) [TBY] 15,000 (1991 Kotynski SIL). North Maluku, Ibu, Jailolo, and Oba districts. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Tobaru. Dialects: ADU, NYEKU. The northern dialect is the main one. The two dialects are inherently intelligible with each other. Access by sea from Ternate to Ibu, Jailolo, and Oba. 25% to 50% literate. Christian. Selections 1994 Life of Christ. Work in progress.
TALIABU (TALIABO) [TLV] 2,500 to 5,500, including 500 to 1,500 in Mangei (1991 C. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, Taliabu Island and northwestern Mangole, Sula Islands. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, Sula, Taliabo. Dialects: PADANG (SAMADA), MANANGA, MANGEI (MANGE'E, MANGE, MANG, SOBOYO, SOBOJO). Dialects share lexical similarities in the upper 90% range. Talo, Seho, Biha, Bono (Mbono) are place names. Access by sea and then land to isolated areas. Language attitudes are positive. Traditional religion, Christian. Work in progress.
TALUR (ILWAKI, ILIWAKI, GALOLENG, LIR TALO, ILMEDU) [ILW] 675 (1990 B. Hinton SIL). Hiay, Ilputih, and Ilwaki villages in south central Wetar Island, north of Timor Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Wetar. 86% lexical similarity with Galoli on east Timor, 57% with Aputai, 52% with Tugun, 51% with Perai and Iliun. Survey needed.
TARANGAN, EAST (EAST TRANGAN, TARANGAN TIMUR) [TRE] 3,784 (1987 Maluku Dalam Angka). East coast of Tarangan Island, south Aru Islands, and villages in Maikor Strait (Sungai Maikor), 13 villages. South Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. 71% lexical similarity with West Tarangan. Dialect variation needs investigation. Language use is vigorous. Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
TARANGAN, WEST (WEST TRANGAN, TARANGAN BARAT) [TXN] 6,478 (Maluku Dalam Angka); largest language in the Aru Islands. West coast of Tarangan Island, southern Aru Islands, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. Dialects: SOUTHWESTERN TARANGAN, NORTH CENTRAL TARANGAN. Language use is vigorous. 2 sharply distinct dialect groups, with minor variation within them. 70% lexical similarity with East Tarangan and Wokam. 60% to 70% literate. Trade language of Aru Islands, especially in the south. Christian, Muslim. Work in progress.
TELA-MASBUAR (TELA'A, MASBUAR-TELA) [TVM] 1,050 (1990 SIL). Villages of Tela and Masbuar, southwest Babar Island, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Babar, South, Southwest Babar. Survey needed.
TELUTI (TALUTI, TIHORU, TEHORU, SILEN, WOLU) [TLT] 17,000 (1989 Loski and Loski SIL). Central Maluku, south Seram Island, Teluti Bay. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East. Dialects: WEST TELUTI (HAYA, WOLU, TEHORU, TEHUA), LAHA SERANI. 74% to 89% lexical similarity among dialects, 69% to 78% with Sepa, 50% with Atamanu. Used as second language by many Manusela and Seti speakers in the area. Trade language. Mostly Muslim, some Christian.
TEOR (TIO'OR) [TEV] 1,100 (1986 SIL). Teor and Ut islands, South Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Teor-Kur. Dialects: GAUR KRISTEN, UT. 79% lexical similarity between Gaur Kristen and Ut, 71% to 83% with Kur, 41% with Watubela, 38% with Geser. Speakers say they understand Kur. Muslim, some Christian. Survey needed.
TERNATE [TFT] 42,000 native speakers and 20,000 or more second language users (1981 Wurm and Hattori). North Maluku, islands of Ternate, Kayoa, Bacan, Obi, and coastal communities on western north Halmahera. Lingua franca in northern and northeastern Halmahera. West Papuan, North Halmahera, South. Vigorous language use in daily communication. Close to Tidore; intelligibility testing is needed. Good access by sea, land, air. 25% to 50% literate. Trade language. Muslim.
TERNATEÑO (TERNATENYO) [TMG] North Maluku, Ternate Island, west of Halmahera Island. Varieties of Portuguese creole were also spoken in Banda and Ambon. Creole, Portuguese based. Spanish lexification. Historical relationship with Chavacano and dialects, which are still spoken in the Philippines. See also Timor Pidgin in Nusa Tenggara and Indo-Portuguese in Sri Lanka. Extinct.
TE'UN [TVE] 1,200 (1990 SIL). Transmigration area in south central Seram Island, central Maluku. 4 villages. (Originally Teun Island in south central Maluku). Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Teun-Nila-Serua, Teun. Moved by the government because of volcanic activity on their island. Survey needed.
TIDORE [TVO] 26,000 native speakers, 20,000 or more second language users (1981 Wurm and Hattori). North Maluku, islands of Tidore, Maitara, Mare, northern half of Moti, and some areas of west coast of Halmahera. West Papuan, North Halmahera, South. Close to Ternate; intelligibility testing is needed. Language attitudes are positive. Good access by sea from Ternate. 25% to 50% literate. Muslim. Work in progress.
TOBELO [TLB] 20,000 to 25,000 (1987 SIL). North Maluku, north Halmahera, northern half of Morotai, all coastal areas of Kao Bay and inland, Patani, Weda, Gane, Bacan, Obi, Ambon, Raja Ampat islands of Irian Jaya. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Tobelo. Dialects: DODINGA, BOËNG, TOBELO (HELEWORURU). Access by road from Tobelo city, by sea from Ternate or Daruba to Tobelo, by air to Kao or Galela. Language attitudes are positive. Intelligibility testing is needed with Tugutil. 25% to 50% literate. Dictionary. Christian. NT 1993.
TUGUN (TUTUNOHAN, MAHUAN) [TZN] 1,200 or more (1990 Hinton SIL). Wetar Island, north of Timor, south Maluku; Mahuan, Masapun, Tomliapat, Ilpokil, Kahailin, Ilway, Arwala villages, on the southeast end of Wetar. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Timor, Southwest Maluku, Wetar. Dialect: ARWALA. 76% lexical similarity with Perai, 74% with Aputai, 73% with Iliun, 52% with Talur. There are word taboos. 15% to 25% literate. Work in progress.
TUGUTIL [TUJ] 1,000 to 3,000 (1984 C. and B. D. Grimes SIL). North Maluku, north Halmahera, inland around Kusuri, inland in Kecamatan Tobelo, around Taboulamo in Kecamatan Kao, in the pass between Lolobata and Buli in Kecamatan Wasilei, near Dodaga, and near Teluk Lili. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Tobelo. Dialects: TELUK LILI, KUSURI. A group of primitive peoples who have minimal contact with modern civilization. Access by sea and then land to isolated areas. Language attitudes are positive. Possibly several dialects separated by large distances. Intelligibility with Tobelo dialects is inadequate. 5% to 15% literate. Traditional religion, Christian. Work in progress.
TULEHU (NORTHEAST AMBON) [TLU] 18,843 (1987 SIL). 4 villages on the coast of northeast Ambon Island, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Piru Bay, East, Seram Straits, Ambon. Dialects: TULEHU, LIANG, TENGAH-TENGAH, TIAL. 84% to 90% lexical similarity among dialects. Each dialect is in a separate village. Eastern end of Ambon dialect chain. 74% to 82% lexical similarity with Hitu, 72% to 76% with Haruku. Language use is vigorous. Access by road, ferry, boat. Muslim, Christian. Survey needed.
UJIR (UDJIR) [UDJ] 975 (1995 J. Hughes). 2 villages, Ujir on Ujir Island and Samang on the end of western peninsula on Wokam Island, in northwest Aru Islands, south Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Aru. 75% lexical similarity with Kola in north Aru, and slightly less with Kulaha on the west coast of Kola Island. Language use is declining in Ujir because of the influence of Malay used by an increasing number of outsiders. Use is reported to be less in Samang than in Ujir. Muslim.
WAIOLI (WAJOLI, WAYOLI) [WLI] 3,000 (1987 Voorhoeve and Visser). North Halmahera, between Sahu and Ibu languages, north Maluku. West Papuan, North Halmahera, North, Sahu. 81% lexical similarity with Gamkonora. Intelligibility testing needed with all languages in Sahu subgroup. Access by sea, or by land from Jailolo. Christian, Muslim. Survey needed.
WATUBELA (SNABI WATUBELA, KASIUI, KESUI, KASUI, WESI, ESIRIUN, MATABELLO) [WAH] 4,000 (1990 R. Loski SIL). Watubela Islands, east central Maluku, north of Kur Island. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Banda-Geser, Geser-Gorom. Dialects: TAMHER TIMUR, SULMELANG. 77% lexical similarity between dialects, 51% to 61% with Geser-Gorom, 41% with Teor and Kur, 37% with Bobot, 34% with Masiwang. Many claim to use Geser-Gorom as second language. Muslim, some Christian. Survey needed.
WEMALE, NORTH [WEO] 4,929 (1982). Spread along the north coast of Taniwel District, east of Taniwel, and in the westernmost part of East Seram District, 24 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Wemale. Dialects: HORALE, KASIEH, UWENPANTAI. Language use is vigorous. Language used in church. There may be three dialects. Kawe may be a dialect. Lexical similarity between east and central dialects is 80%, 72% with South Wemale, 59% with Hulung. Access by boat from Ambon. Christian, Muslim (Kanikeh village).
WEMALE, SOUTH (TALA, HONITETU) [TLW] 3,726 (1987 SIL). Central Maluku, west Seram, 15 villages; 13 in Kairatu, mainly in the interior, and two westernmost coastal villages of Amahai District. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers, Wemale. Language use is vigorous. Dialect chain between Horale, Kasieh, Uwenpantai, and Honitetu. Kawe may be a dialect. Lexical similarity between Horale and Kasieh, and between Uwenpantai and Honitetu is 80%, 72% with North Wemale, 66% with Hulung, 47% with Atamanu. Access by boat. Christian.
YALAHATAN (ATAMANU, JAHALATAN, JAHALATANE, AWAIYA) [JAL] 800, including 400 in each village (1991 SIL). West Seram, villages of Yalahatan and Haruru, central Maluku. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Central Maluku, East, Seram, Nunusaku, Three Rivers. Slight dialect differences reported between the two villages. 50% to 52% lexical similarity with Sepa, 49% to 50% with Teluti. Speakers are not familiar with the name 'Atamanu'. 15% to 25% literate. Work in progress.
YAMDENA (JAMDENA, JAMDEN) [JMD] 25,000 active speakers out of an ethnic group of 35,000 to 40,000 (1991 T. Mettler SIL). Southeast Maluku, eastern coast of Yamdena, Adaut village on northern tip of Selaru, and one of the two languages spoken in Latdalam village, southwest Yamdena. 35 villages. Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Central-Eastern, Central Malayo-Polynesian, Southeast Maluku, Kei-Tanimbar, Yamdena. Dialects: NORTH YAMDENA, SOUTH YAMDENA. Language use is vigorous, except for some villages, especially in the north. Speakers' second language is Ambonese Malay. Dialect chaining from north to south with 90% lexical similarity between the extremes, but with considerable morphological and phonological differences. The southern dialect is more prestigious. 47% lexical similarity with Fordata. 80% literate. Dictionary. Grammar. Christian (RC, Protestant). Selections 1993. Work in progress.
Part of the Ethnologue, 13th Edition, Barbara F. Grimes, Editor.
Copyright © 1996, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Inc. All rights reserved.
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