Estados Unidos Mexicanos. 97,967,000 (1995); 8% of the population speak Indian languages. Literacy rate 87% to 88%. Also includes Arabic 400,000, Chinese 31,000. Information mainly from SIL 1996. Christian, secular. Blind population 200,000. Deaf population 1,300,000 (1986 Gallaudet University). Deaf institutions: 30. Data accuracy estimate: A1, A2. The number of languages listed for Mexico is 295. Of those, 289 are living languages and 6 are extinct.
AFRO-SEMINOLE CREOLE (AFRO-SEMINOLE) [AFS] Several hundred (1990). Nacimiento de los Negros, Coahuila, México. Also in Texas and Oklahoma. Creole, English based, Atlantic, Eastern, Northern. Dialects: TEXAS, OKLAHOMA, MEXICO. Separated from coastal Sea Islands Creole between 1690 and 1760. Similar to Bahamas Creole. 90% lexical similarity with Sea Islands Creole. "The variety in Mexico has not been described" (Holm 1989:495). Only spoken by older people in Nacimiento.
AMUZGO, GUERRERO [AMU] 23,000 including 10,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Southeastern Guerrero, Xochistlahuaca municipio, Zacoalpan, Cochoapa, Huehuetonoc, Tlacoachistlahuaca, Guadalupe Victoria, Cozoyoapan. Oto-Manguean, Amuzgoan. Dialects: XOCHISTLAHUACA, ZACOALPAN, COCHOAPA, HUEHUETONOC. 67% intelligibility of Oaxaca Amuzgo. Literacy rate: 30% adults, 40% children. Typology: VSO, tonal, short word, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:37%, 2:10%, 3:2.5%, 4:.5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 400 to 1,600 meters. NT 1973. Bible portions 1953-1968.
AMUZGO, OAXACA (AMUZGO DE SAN PEDRO AMUZGOS) [AZG] 4,000 including monolinguals (1990 census). Southwestern Oaxaca, Putla district, San Pedro Amuzgos. One town with outlying settlements. Oto-Manguean, Amuzgoan. 76% intelligibility of Amuzgo of Guerrero. Typology: VSO, tonal, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:35%, 2:15%, 3:0%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 350 to 500 meters. NT 1992. Bible portions 1978-1980.
AMUZGO, SANTA MARÍA IPALAPA (IPALAPA AMUZGO) [AZM] 1,200 including 60 monolinguals (1990 census). May be up to 2,000 speakers, including more than 60 monolinguals (1992 C. Stewart SIL). Oaxaca, Putla district, about 8 to 10 miles northeast of San Pedro Amuzgos; five locations around Santa María Ipalapa. Just off the highway from Tlaxiaco to the coast. Oto-Manguean, Amuzgoan. Not intelligible with other Amuzgo. Children grow up speaking the language. Some bilingualism in Spanish. Primary and secondary education available. No telephone or telegraph. Typology: tonal. Savannah, scrub or gallery forest. Mountain slope, inland coastal. Swidden agriculturalists: maize, beans, squash, chile peppers, tomatoes. Altitude: 2,000 feet.
CHATINO, LACHAO-YOLOTEPEC [CLY] 2,000 (1993 SIL). Southeastern Oaxaca, villages of Lachao Pueblo Nuevo and Santa María Yolotepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. Dialects: LACHAO, YOLOTEPEC. The two dialects are functionally intelligible to speakers of each. Uses lengthened word forms similar to Northern Chatino. Similar to Zacatepec, but geographically and socioeconomically separated. 87% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 83% of Nopala, 77% of Panixtlahuaca, 21% of Tataltepec. 30% to 40% of the speakers have limited to routine ability in Spanish. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Mountains, coastal range. Subsistence agriculturalists: coffee; timber. Altitude: 6,000 to 8,000 feet. Survey needed.
CHATINO, NOPALA (EAST HIGHLAND CHATINO) [CYA] 11,000 including 2,300 monolinguals (1990 census). Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila district, 10 towns. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. 59% intelligibility of Panixtlahuaca, 73% of Yaitepec, 13% of Tataltepec. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Tropical forest. Coastal, mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists, craftsmen. Altitude: 480 to 1,600 meters. Work in progress.
CHATINO, TATALTEPEC (LOWLAND CHATINO) [CTA] 4,000 including 470 monolinguals (1990 census). Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila district, extreme west lowland Chatino area, in the towns of Tataltepec de Valdez and San Pedro Tututepec, and a few speakers in nearby Spanish population centers. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. 38% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 35% of Panixtlahuaca, 33% of Nopana, 27% of Zacatepec. Dictionary, grammar. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:1%, 1:9%, 2:70%, 3:20%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Coastal, foothills. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 to 500 meters. NT 1981. Bible portions 1974.
CHATINO, WEST HIGHLAND (CHATINO DE LA ZONA ALTA OCCIDENTAL) [CTP] 7,300 (1990 census). Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila district, towns of Panixtlahuaca, San Juan Quiahije, Cieneguilla, and possibly Yaitepec; villages of Ixtapan, Tepenixtelahuaca, Ixpantepec, and Amialtepec, plus various rancherías. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. Dialects: PANIXTLAHUACA CHATINO, SAN JUAN QUIAHIJE CHATINO. 71% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 66% of Nopala, 46% of Zacatepec, 32% of Tataltepec. Yaitepec may be adequately intelligible with West Highland. The economic situation varies from poor in Ixtapan to some wealthy families in Panixtlahuaca and San Juan. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:60%, 1:30%, 2:9.95%, 3:.05%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists, coffee culture, timber, cattle. Altitude: 650 to 2,335 meters. NT 1992. Bible portions 1985.
CHATINO, YAITEPEC [CUC] 2,300 including 900 monolinguals (1990 census). Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila district, town of Santiago Yaitepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. A bordering variety of the two intersecting circles of West Highland and East Highland (Nopala). 80% intelligibility of Nopala, 78% of Panixtlahuaca, 20% of Tataltepec. One of the most monolingual Chatino towns. Bible portions 1966-1991. Work in progress.
CHATINO, ZACATEPEC (SAN MARCOS ZACATEPEC CHATINO) [CTZ] 1,000 (1990 census). Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila, village of San Marcos Zacatepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. 66% intelligibility of Nopala, 61% of Panixtlahuaca, 57% of Yaitepec, 6% of Tataltepec. Lengthened word forms are like Northern Chatino. Similar to Lachao-Yolotepec in some respects, but geographically and socioeconomically separated. Tropical forest. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: maize, coffee, palm nuts, fruit. Altitude: 500 to 600 meters. Work in progress.
CHATINO, ZENZONTEPEC (NORTHERN CHATINO) [CZE] 8,000 including 2,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila district, various sectors in the municipios of Santa Cruz Zenzontepec and San Jacinto Tlacotepec, and parts of the former municipio of Santa María Tlapanalquiahuitl. It does not include the adjacent Zapoteco areas of Texmelucan or Zaniza. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Chatino. Some dialect differences in Santa María Tlapanalquiahuitl area. One of the most isolated and conservative groups in Oaxaca. Economically marginal. Dry season access overland. Limited air access. Typology: SVO, tonal, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:20%, 2:20%, 3:10%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope, inland. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,000 to 1,500 meters. Work in progress.
CHIAPANECO [CIP] 150 in Mexico, including 17 speakers out of 32 population in Chiapas (1990 census). State of Chiapas, El Bosque (2), Las Margaritas (2), Ocosingo (4), Palenque (2), Sabanilla (7) municipios. Oto-Manguean, Chiapanec-Mangue. Reported to be quite similar to Chorotega of Costa Rica and El Salvador. Nearly extinct.
CHICHIMECA PAME, NORTHERN (CHICHIMECA DE ALAQUINES PAME) [PMQ] 1,000 to 10,000 (1993). San Luis Potosí, Alaquines, La Palma, and rancherías up to 5 hours' walk away. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Pamean. Dialect: LA PALMA PAME. 10% to 15% intelligibility of Santa María Acapulco; 87% intelligibility of Alaquines by La Palma speakers. Limited bilingualism in Spanish. 2 to 6 years of primary school in thhe 2 towns. Accessible by vehicle. Semi-arid. Agriculturalists: banana. Altitude: 2,600 feet.
CHICHIMECA-JONAZ (CHICHIMECO, CHICHIMECA, MECO, JONAZ) [PEI] 200 speakers (1993 K. Olson Instituto Betania). State of Guanajuato, San Luis de la Paz, Jonáz village. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Chichimec. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Survey needed.
CHICOMUCELTEC (CAC'CHIQUEL MAM, CAKCHIQUEL MAM, CHICOMULCELTECO) [COB] Ethnic group: 1,500 in Mexico; 100 in Guatemala (1982 GR); 1,600 total. Chiapas, towns of Mazapa de Madero, Alotenango, and Chicomucelo. Mayan, Huastecan. Reported to be extinct in recent Mayanist literature, but the 1990 Mexico census lists 275 speakers.
CHINANTECO, CHILTEPEC [CSA] 1,000 including some possible monolinguals. They live in villages with speakers of other Chinanteco varieties, so it is difficult to know how many there are. 4,000 in Chiltepec municipio with 250 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, San José Chiltepec. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 76% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 20% of Usila and Ojitlán, 13% of Valle Nacional. Speakers use Spanish as second language, but outlying towns are not as bilingual as the center. Riverine. Altitude: below 3,000 feet. Survey needed.
CHINANTECO, COMALTEPEC [CCO] 2,000 including monolinguals (1990 census). North Oaxaca, 5 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 69% intelligibility of Quiotepec (closest), 7% of Tepetotutla. 75% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:15%, 2:30%, 3:30%, 4:19%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,300 to 1,500 meters. Bible portions 1976-1990. Work in progress.
CHINANTECO, LALANA [CNL] 11,500 including 1,800 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca-Veracruz border, 24 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 87% intelligibility of Tepinapa (closest, but lower in outlying areas), 43% of Ozumacin, 24% of Lealao. Typology: VOS, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:29%, 2:10%, 3:10%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope, interfluvial. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 100 to 2,000 meters. NT 1974-1994. Bible portions 1962-1968.
CHINANTECO, LEALAO (LATANI CHINANTECO) [CLE] 2,000 including monolinguals (1990 census). North Oaxaca, San Juan Lealao, Latani, and Tres Ríos. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. Considered the most divergent of the Chinantec languages. There is also some bilingualism in Zapoteco. Typology: VOS, tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:45%, 2:50%, 3:0%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 50 to 500 meters. NT 1980. Bible portions 1972.
CHINANTECO, OJITLÁN [CHJ] 22,000 including 2,800 monolinguals (1990 census). Northern Oaxaca, San Lucas Ojitlán, including 4 towns and 15 rancherías, and Veracruz, Hidalgotitlán and Minatitlán municipios. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 49% intelligibility of Sochiapan (closest), 43% of Usila, 39% of Palantla, 31% of Chiltepec. NT 1968, out of print. Bible portions 1955-1965.
CHINANTECO, OZUMACÍN (AYOTZINTEPEC) [CHZ] 4,000 (1991 SIL) including 260 monolinguals (1990 census). North Oaxaca, 3 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 63% intelligibility of Palantla (closest), 22% of Lalana and Valle Nacional. 50% to 75% literate. Forests. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: maize, pigs, poultry. Bible portions 1990-1995. Work in progress.
CHINANTECO, PALANTLA [CPA] 12,000 including 1,500 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, San Juan Palantla plus 13 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. Dialect: SANTIAGO TLATEPUSCO. 78% intelligibility of Tepetotutla (closest), 72% of Valle Nacional, 69% of Usila, 54% of Ozumacin. 50% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:25%, 2:35%, 3:25%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 50 to 500 meters. NT 1973. Bible portions 1965-1966.
CHINANTECO, QUIOTEPEC (HIGHLAND CHINANTECO) [CHQ] 6,100 including 900 monolinguals (1990 census). Northwestern Oaxaca, San Juan Quiotepec plus 5 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. Dialect: YOLOX. 87% intelligibility of Comaltepec (closest, lower in outlying areas), 7% of Tepetotutla. The highland Chinanteco languages share a complexity of vowel length and tone extensions that Tepetotutla and Palantla do not have. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:35%, 1:20%, 2:15%, 3:15%, 4:10%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,000 to 2,400 meters. NT 1983. Bible portions 1968.
CHINANTECO, SOCHIAPAN [CSO] 3,700 including 725 monolinguals (1990 census). North Oaxaca, San Pedro Sochiapan plus 4 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 66% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 56% of Chiltepec, 45% of Usila, 11% of Tepetotutla. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:15%, 1:15%, 2:30%, 3:30%, 4:9%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 800 to 2,000 meters. NT 1986. Bible portions 1969.
CHINANTECO, TEPETOTUTLA [CNT] 2,000 (1990 census). North Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Tepetotutla plus 4 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 60% intelligibility of Quiotepec, 59% of Palantla, 48% of Yolox. Grammar. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Tropical forest, mountain slope. Agriculturalists: coffee. Altitude: 4,000 feet. NT 1994. Bible portions 1974.
CHINANTECO, TEPINAPA [CTE] 8,000 including 2,500 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Choapan District, Santiago Jocotepec Municipio: San Pedro Tepinapa; San Juan Petlapa Municipio: Santa María Lovani, San Juan Toavela, and Santa Isabel Cajonos. Very remote area. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 79% intelligibility of Comaltepec, 87% to 68% of Lalana, 24% of Lealao, 23% of Ozumacin. Limited bilingualism. Most children are monolingual when they start school. Most villages have less than 6 grades of primary school. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: maize, coffee, ixtle. Altitude: 1,000 to 3,000 feet.
CHINANTECO, TLACOATZINTEPEC [CTL] 2,000 including 550 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, San Juan Bautista Tlacoatzintepec plus 4 towns. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 85% intelligibility of Chiltepec (closest, lower in outlying areas), 84% of Usila, 74% of Sochiapan, 15% of Tepetotutla. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:40%, 2:9%, 3:1%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 3,200 feet. Work in progress.
CHINANTECO, USILA [CUS] 9,000 including 2,200 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, San Felipe Usila plus 12 towns, and 1 in Veracruz (Pueblo Doce). Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 48% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 33% of Palantla, 32% of Sociapan, 31% of Ojitlán. Dictionary in progress. 20% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:30%, 2:10%, 3:7%, 4:2%, 5:1%. Riverine. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 100 to 400 meters. NT 1983. Bible portions 1964-1968.
CHINANTECO, VALLE NACIONAL [CHV] 1,000 to 2,000 (1990 census). North Oaxaca, San Juan Bautista Valle Nacional and mainly in San Mateo Yetla. Oto-Manguean, Chinantecan. 71% intelligibility of Chiltepec (closest), 70% of Palantla, 53% of Ozumacin, 40% of Tepetotutla. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Survey needed.
CHOCHOTECO (CHOCHO) [COZ] 1,202 (1990 census). Oaxaca, Nochixtlán district, Santa María Nativitas (428 out of 764 population), San Juan Bautista Coixtlahuaca (272 out of 3,111 population), San Martín Toxpalán (207 out of 2,462 population), San Miguel Tulancingo (72 out of 553 population). Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Chocho. Speakers use Spanish as second language. "Chocho" speakers were also reported in the 1990 census in Puebla and other parts of Mexico, apparently referring to Popoloca speakers. Survey needed.
CHOL, TILA [CTI] 35,000 to 40,000 including 13,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Chiapas, Tila area, Vicente Guerrero, Chioalito, Limar. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Cholan, Chol-Chontal. 86% intelligibility of Sabanilla, 82% of Tumbalá. NT 1976. Bible portions 1966-1968.
CHOL, TUMBALÁ [CTU] 90,000 including 30,000 monolinguals and 10,000 in Sabanilla (1992). North central Chiapas, Tumbalá plus 5 towns. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Cholan, Chol-Chontal. Dialect: SABANILLA CHOL. Grammar. Typology: SVO, VOS, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:25%, 2:20%, 3:4.7%, 4:.2%, 5:.1%. Mountain slope, interfluvial. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 100 to 1,600 meters. Christian, traditional religion. Bible 1977-1992. NT 1960. Bible portions 1947-1963.
CHONTAL OF OAXACA, HIGHLAND (MOUNTAIN TEQUISTLATECO, SIERRA CHONTAL, TEQUISTLATEC) [CHD] 3,600 (1990 census). Southernmost part of Oaxaca, west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, San José Chiltepec, San Lucas Ixcatepec, plus 15 towns. Hokan, Tequistlatecan. 'Tequistlateco' has been used in publications, but the true Tequistlateco was spoken in the town of Tequisistlán, and is now extinct. 75% to 100% literate. Typology: VS, SV, or VO, non-tonal, medium long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:1%, 1:2%, 2:70%, 3:22%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,500 to 2,300 meters. NT 1991. Bible portions 1963-1980.
CHONTAL OF OAXACA, LOWLAND (HUAMELULA CHONTAL, COASTAL CHONTAL OF OAXACA, HUAMELULTECO) [CLO] 950 (1990 census). No monolinguals. Southern Oaxaca, Tehuantepec district, San Pedro Huamelula and Santiago Astata. Hokan, Tequistlatecan. Speakers are bilingual in rural Spanish. Typology: VSO, non-tonal, medium long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Rural Spanish are 0:0%, 1:0%, 2:0%, 3:40%, 4:30%, 5:30%. Coastal. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 meters. Bible portions 1955.
CHONTAL OF TABASCO [CHF] 60,000 (1991 Schumann). North central and southern Tabasco, 21 towns. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Cholan, Chol-Chontal. Dialects: TAMULTE DE LAS SABANAS, BUENA VISTA, MIRAMAR. Speakers of all dialects understand San Carlos Macuspana 80% to 94%. NT 1977. Bible portions 1952-1966.
CHUJ, SAN MATEO IXTATÁN (CHAPAI) [CNM] 9,500 in Mexico including 8,000 refugees (1991 Schumann); 22,130 in Guatemala (1991 SIL); 31,630 total. Municipio of Trinitaria, Chiapas; villages of Tziscau and Cuauhtémoc. Mayan, Kanjobalan-Chujean, Chujean. The Mexican group is bilingual in Spanish. NT 1970. Bible portions 1956-1967.
COCHIMÍ (COCHIMTEE, COCHETIMI, COCHIMA, CADEGOMO, CADEGOMEÑO, DIDIU, LAIMON, LAYMONEM, LAYMON-COCHIMI, SAN JAVIER, SAN XAVIER, SAN JOAQUIN, SAN FRANCESCO SAVERIO MISSION, SAN FRANCISCO XAVIER DE VIGGÉ-BIAUNDO MISSION) [COJ] Baja California Norte, north of Loreto to the northern part of the peninsula. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Cochimi. Troike (1970) regards it as two distinct languages. Kumiai (Tipai) in La Huerta now call themselves 'Cochimí'. Old Cochimí is extinct (Mixco 1978).
COCOPA (COCOPAH, CUCUPA, CUCAPÁ, KWIKAPA, KIKIMA) [COC] 178 in Mexico (1991 Cuarón and Lastra); 321 in the USA including 6 monolinguals (1990 census); 500 total. Baja California, El Mayor, San Poza de Aroizú (to the south of Río San Luis Colorado). Also migrant population in the USA. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Delta-Californian. Hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists: maize. Bible portions 1972. Work in progress.
CORA [COR] 8,000 (1993 SIL). North central Nayarit. Several hundred speakers of Jesus María dialect in the agricultural valleys of western Colorado, USA. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Corachol. Dialects: JESÚS MARÍA, CORAPAN, LA MESA DEL NAYAR, SAN FRANCISCO. Santa Teresa Cora is distinct enough to need separate literature. La Mesa del Nayar may need adapted literature from Jesus María dialect. Typology: VSO, VOS, tonal, short nouns, long verbs, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:10%, 2:25%, 3:35%, 4:15%, 5:10%. Mountain mesa, mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists: maize, beans, squash. Altitude: 100 to 2,300 meters. Bible portions 1961-1995. Work in progress.
CORA, SANTA TERESA [COK] 7,000 (1993 SIL). North central Nayarit, Santa Teresa, Dolores, San Blasito. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Corachol. Dialects: SANTA TERESA, DOLORES, SAN BLASITO. Difficult intelligibility with other Cora varieties. Dialect differences minor. Work in progress.
CUICATECO, TEPEUXILA [CUX] 8,500 including 850 monolinguals (1990 census). Northwestern Oaxaca, 16 towns. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Cuicatec. Dialect: CONCEPCIÓN PÁPALO. 88% intelligibility of Teutila. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:.01%, 1:.10%, 2:9%, 3:9%, 4:80%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,000 to 2,500 meters. NT 1974. Bible portions 1951-1966.
CUICATECO, TEUTILA [CUT] 10,000 including 260 monolinguals (1990 census). Teutila, Oaxaca, 8 towns. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Cuicatec. 79% intelligibility of Tepeuxila. Typology: Tonal, VSO, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:3%, 1:22%, 2:5%, 3:10%, 4:50%, 5:10%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,700 to 2,300 meters. NT 1972. Bible portions 1962-1965.
HUARIJÍO (GUARIJÍO, WARIHÍO, VARIHÍO) [VAR] 5,000 (1994 SIL). Nearly all are monolingual. Western Sierra Madre Mts., west central Chihuahua, from Rio Chinipas on the east to the Sonora border, to the headwaters of the Rio Mayo in Sonora, more than 17 villages. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tarahumaran, Guarijio. Dialects: HIGHLAND HUARIJIO, LOWLAND HUARIJIO. Intelligibility with Tarahumara is less than 50%. Possible dialect or separate language: Maculai. Literacy rate: 5% adults. Typology: OVS, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:20%, 2:19%, 3:10%, 4:-1%, 5:0%. Riverine. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 to 800 meters. Bible portions 1995. Work in progress.
HUASTECO, SAN LUIS POTOSÍ [HVA] 70,000 (1990 census). San Luis Potosí, 12 villages. Mayan, Huastecan. Newspaper. Intelligibility tests indicate one Huasteco language, but sociological factors require literature in the Veracruz variety. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:25%, 1:40%, 2:15%, 3:10%, 4:6%, 5:4%. Coastal, mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 93 meters. NT 1971. Bible portions 1953-1956.
HUASTECO, SOUTHEASTERN (SAN FRANCISCO CHONTLA HUASTECO) [HAU] Northern Veracruz, San Francisco Chontla. Mayan, Huastecan. Inadequate intelligibility of other Veracruz Huasteco. Scrub forest. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 500 to 700 meters.
HUASTECO, VERACRUZ [HUS] 50,000 (1990 census). Northern Veracruz, 60 villages. Mayan, Huastecan. Dialects: SAN FRANCISCO CHONTLA, TANCOCO, MATOTATE, ZARAGOZA VIEJA, TOTECO. 84% intelligibility of San Luis Potosí Huasteco. 52% literate. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:15%, 2:30%, 3:25%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 500 to 700 meters. Work in progress.
HUAVE, SAN DIONISIO DEL MAR [HVE] 3,000 to 5,000 speakers (1993 G. Stairs SIL). Southeastern coast, Oaxaca, San Dionisio del Mar. Huavean. Very limited intelligibility of other Huave, although closest to Santa María del Mar Huave. Typology: non-tonal. Desert. Coastal. Fishermen. Altitude: 0 to 60 meters. Survey needed.
HUAVE, SAN FRANCISCO DEL MAR [HUE] 900 speakers with 30% to 40% monolingual in the old village, out of an ethnic population of 3,900 (1990 census). Southeastern coast, Oaxaca, Juchitán District, San Francisco del Mar, old town and new town. Huavean. 38% intelligibility of San Mateo del Mar Huave. The most divergent variety of Huave. 30% to 40% of speakers may be monolingual. Younger speakers use Spanish as second language. 2,000 to 3,000 in the new San Francisco town have shifted from Huave to Spanish. Typology: non-tonal. Desert. Coastal. Fishermen. Altitude: 0 to 60 meters.
HUAVE, SAN MATEO DEL MAR [HUV] 12,000 including 1,800 monolinguals (1990 census). Southeastern coast, Oaxaca, San Mateo del Mar. Huavean. Only very limited intelligibility of other Huave varieties. Their legend says they came from Central America. 40% literate. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:0.5%, 1:14.5%, 2:40%, 3:35%, 4:10%, 5:0%. Coastal. Fishermen, agriculturalists. Altitude: sea level. NT 1972, in press (1995). Bible portions 1953-1995.
HUAVE, SANTA MARÍA DEL MAR [HVV] 500 speakers in 100 families (1993 G. Stairs SIL). Southeastern coast, Oaxaca, Santa María del Mar. Huavean. Very limited intelligibility of other Huave, although closest to San Dionisio. Children learn Spanish first, but learn Huave by adulthood, because adults speak Huave. Typology: non-tonal. Desert. Coastal. Fishermen. Altitude: 0 to 60 meters. Survey needed.
HUICHOL [HCH] 20,000 (1990 census). Northeastern Nayarit and northwestern Jalisco. The main centers are San Andrés Cohamiata, Guadalupe Ocotán, San Sebastián, Santa Catarina, Tuxpan de Bolaños. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Corachol. Dialects: SAN ANDRÉS COHAMIATA (WESTERN HUICHOL), SAN SEBASTIÁN-SANTA CATARINA (EASTERN HUICHOL), COYULTITA. All dialects are easily inherently intelligible. 58% cognate with Cora; closest (Wick Miller 1984). Grammar, dictionary. 5% to 15% literate. Typology: SOV, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:50%, 2:30%, 3:9%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists: maize, beans, squash, vegetables; animal husbandry: chickens, pigs, donkeys, horses, cattle. Altitude: 500 to 2,500 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1967. Bible portions 1958-1967.
IXCATECO [IXC] 804 speakers, including 368 in Nuevo Soyaltepec, 245 in Tuxtepec, 47 in Santa María Ixcatlán (1990 census). Santa María Ixcatlán, Oaxaca is the original town, surrounded by Mixteco speakers. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Ixcatecan. Primer, description of phonology, tone. Dictionary. Survey needed.
JACALTECO, WESTERN [JAI] 10,500 in Mexico including 10,000 refugees (1991 Schumann); 27,062 in Guatemala (1991 SIL); 37,662 total. Concepción Saravia near the municipio of Comalapa de la Frontera, and Amatenango de la Frontera, Chiapas. Mayan, Kanjobalan-Chujean, Kanjobalan, Kanjobal-Jacaltec. Mexican group is bilingual in Spanish. NT 1979. Bible portions 1969.
KANJOBAL, WESTERN (ACATECO, ACATEC, SAN MIGUEL ACATÁN KANJOBAL, CONOB) [KNJ] 100 Acatec and 10,000 refugees in Mexico (1991 Schumann) 24,037 in Guatemala (1991 SIL); 34,137 total. Trinitaria, Comalapa, and Mazapa de Madero, Chiapas, and Quintana Roo. Some also in USA. Mayan, Kanjobalan-Chujean, Kanjobalan, Kanjobal-Jacaltec. Typology: VSO. NT 1981.
KIKAPOO (KICKAPOO, KIKAPU KICAPUS, KICAPAUX, KICAPOUX, KIKABEEUX, QUICAPAUSE) [KIC] 300 in Mexico (1992 SIL); 539 in USA including 6 monolinguals (1990 census); 839 total, out of 1,500 population including USA (1987 SIL). Coahuila. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Most speakers spend part of the year in the USA working. 1% literate in Spanish, 45% in English. Work in progress.
KILIWI (KILÍWA, QUILIGUA) [KLB] 24 to 32 (1994 Stoltzfus SIL); 6 to 8 households (1994 SIL). Arroyo León (4 or 5 houses), Agua Escondida (1 house), La Parra (1 or 2 houses) southeast of Ensenada, Baja California Norte. South of the Paipai, Tipai, and Cocopa. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Kiliwa. A Kiliwi population sample understood Paipai at 87%, but a Paipai sample understood no Kiliwi. Linguistically distinct from Paipai, Tipai, and Cocopa (A. Wares). Nearly extinct.
KUMIÁI (DIGUEÑO, TIPÁI, TIPAI', TIPÉI, COCHIMÍ, CUCHIMÍ, KAMIA, KAMIAI, QUEMAYÁ, COMEYA, KUMEYAAI, KAMIYAI, KAMIYAHI, KI-MIAI, KUMIA, KUMEYAAY, CAMPO, KO'AL, KU'AHL, KW'AAL) [DIH] 220 in Mexico (1991 Garza and Lastra); 97 in the USA (1990 census); 320 in both countries. Baja California, Rancho Nejí, in the mountains southeast of Tecate, 60 kms. east of Ensenada, in La Huerta de los Indios, San Antonio Nécua, San José de la Zorra, Cañon de los Encinos, and Ja'áa. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Delta-Californian. It is not clear how the above names group into different dialects. Speakers in Mexico use Spanish as second language. Speakers in Neji call themselves 'Kumiai', in La Huerta call themselves 'Cochimí'. Different from the extinct language called 'Cochimí'. Grammar.
LACANDÓN [LAC] 500 to 700 (1990 SIL). Southeastern Chiapas, Najá, Lanjá San Quintín, Metzaboc, Betel. Mayan, Yucatecan, Yucatec-Lacandon. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Tzeltal, Chol are 0:49%, 1:20%, 2:20%, 3:10%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Interfluvial. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 500 to 1,200 meters. NT 1978. Bible portions 1968.
MAM, NORTHERN [MAM] 1,000 or more in Mexico; 155,800 in Guatemala; 157,000 total. Total Mam in Mexico: 28,000 (1980 census). Chiapas, outside of Pacayal near La Mesilla border, and in Ojo de Agua near Guadalupe. Mayan, Quichean-Mamean, Greater Mamean, Mamean. These are two colonies of Northern Mam Indians from Guatemala. Most are native of either Cuilco or San Ildefonso Ixtahuacan. Bible 1993. NT 1968. Bible portions 1960-1961.
MAM, TODOS SANTOS CUCHUMATÁN [MVJ] 10,000 in Mexico, 15,000 to 30,000 in Guatemala (1991 SIL); 25,000 to 40,000 total. Mayan, Quichean-Mamean, Greater Mamean, Mamean. Bible portions 1981-1986. Work in progress.
MATLATZINCA, ATZINGO (OCUILTECO, OCUILTEC, ATZINTECO, TLAHURA, TLAHUICA) [OCU] 50 to 100 fluent speakers (1993 SIL); 642 in the ethnic group with no monolinguals (1990 census). State of Mexico, Ocuilan municipio, San Juan Atzingo, Santa Lucia del Progreso. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Matlatzincan. Closely related to Matlatzinca of Francisco de los Ranchos, but not inherently intelligible. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Mountain slope. Nearly extinct.
MATLATZINCA, FRANCISCO DE LOS RANCHOS (MATLATZINCA) [MAT] 1,000 with 7 monolinguals (1990 census). State of Mexico, 1 village: San Francisco de los Ranchos. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Matlatzincan. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Survey needed.
MAYA (YUCATECO, PENINSULAR MAYA) [YUA] 700,000 in Mexico (1990 census); 5,800 in the ethnic group in Belize (1991). Campeche, Quintana Roo, Yucatán. Mayan, Yucatecan, Yucatec-Lacandon. Typology: SVO. Bible 1992. NT 1961-1977. Bible portions 1865-1985.
MAYAN SIGN LANGUAGE (NOHYA SIGN LANGUAGE, LENGUAJE MÍMICO MAYA) [MSD] 14 and more deaf people, including 13 adults and 1 baby, out of a village of 400, and other relatives in other villages. All use sign (1989 Sacks). Nohya, Yucatán. An isolated village plus other villages throughout a wide portion of the lowland Mayan region. Deaf sign language. Congenital deafness. It is of some antiquity. Not intelligible with Mexican Sign Language used in Merida and other cities. Survey needed.
MAYA, CHAN SANTA CRUZ (MAYA OF CHAN SANTA CRUZ) [YUS] 40,000 (1990 census). East central Quintana Roo. Mayan, Yucatecan, Yucatec-Lacandon. Speakers are bilingual in Yucateco of Yucatán, but not in Spanish. Survey needed.
MAYO [MAY] 40,000 (1990 census). Southern Sonora around Navojoa along the coast (Huatabampo), and a few in northern Sinaloa (Los Mochis, Guasave, San José Ríos, north of Guamuchil. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Cahita. 90% intelligibility with Yaqui. Speakers prefer Mayo. 10% literate. Typology: non-tonal, SOV, medium word length, clitics, and affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:2%, 1:10%, 2:40%, 3:35%, 4:8%, 5:5%. Coastal plains. Peasant agriculturalists, pastoralists, fishermen. Altitude: 0 to 100 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. Bible portions 1962-1967. Work in progress.
MAZAHUA [MAZ] 350,000 (1993 SIL). Western and northwestern State of Mexico and some in D. F. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Mazahua. Dialects: ATLACOMULCO-TEMASCALCINGO, SANTA MARÍA CITENDEJÉ-BANOS, SAN MIGUEL TENOXTITLÁN. The Atlacomulco-Temascalcingo dialect uses different kinship terms, has phonological differences, grammatical variation among towns, and may need further adaptation of literature. 85% to 100% intelligibility among dialects. 35% literate. Typology: VSO, (usually VS or VO), tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:7%, 1:40%, 2:37%, 3:12%, 4:3%, 5:1%. Mountain mesa and slope, riverine. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,500 to 2,750 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1970. Bible portions 1949-1987.
MAZAHUA, MICHOACÁN [QMN] 18,000 (1982 SIL). Eastern Michoacán. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Mazahua. Typology: VSO, (usually VS or VO), tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Savannah, gallery forest, deciduous forest, pine forest. Mountain mesa and slope, riverine. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,500 to 2,750 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. Bible portions 1987.
MAZATECO, AYAUTLA [VMY] 3,500 speakers including 2,800 monolinguals; the rest somewhat bilingual (1994 SIL). Oaxaca, southeastern Teotitlán District, San Bartolomé Ayautla. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. 80% intelligibility of Huautla, 79% of San Miguel Hualtepec, 40% of Soyaltepec, 37% of Jalapa, 24% of Ixcatlán. A prestige variety, used in all situations. Children play in the language. There is a bilingual school and a secondary school. People are interested in literature. Agriculturalists: maize, beans, chile, coffee, vanilla. Altitude: 2,000 feet.
MAZATECO, HUAUTLA DE JIMENEZ (HIGHLAND MAZATECO) [MAU] 72,000 including 27,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Northern Oaxaca, Huautla and vicinity. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. Dialects: SAN MATEO, SAN MIGUEL. 94% lexical similarity with San Miguel, 93% with San Mateo, 80% with Soyaltepec, 78% with San Pedro Ixcatlán, 74% with Jalapa de Diaz. 90% intelligibility of San Jerónimo (closest, lower in outlying areas), 60% of Mazatlán, 35% of Jalapa. Typology: tonal, short words. NT 1961. Bible portions 1946-1958.
MAZATECO, MAZATLÁN [VMZ] 13,000 including 2,200 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, southern Teotitlán District, Mazatlán Villa de Flores, plus 32 towns and villages, and others in D.F. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. Dialects: LOMA GRANDE, ZOYALTITLA. 80% intelligibility of San Jerónimo, 78% of Huautla, 16% of Jalapa, 8% of Chiquihuitlán. Every village has a primary school, and some have secondary schools. Over half the children do not know Spanish when entering school. There is electricity. Agriculturalists: maize, coffee, mango, zapote, banana. Altitude: 4,000 feet.
MAZATECO, SAN FELIPE JALAPA DE DIAZ (LOWLAND MAZATECO) [MAJ] 15,500 including 4,600 monolinguals (1990 census). Northern Oaxaca and Veracruz, 13 towns. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. 82% lexical similarity with Ixcatlán, San Mateo, and San Miguel; 80% with Soyaltepec, 74% with Huautla. 73% intelligibility with Huautla (closest), 62% with Ixcatlán, 51% with Soyaltepec, 46% with San Jerónimo, 35% with Mazatlán. 5% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:75%, 1-5:25%. Coastal, slope. Swidden, peasant. Altitude: 150 meters. NT in press (1996). Bible portions 1968-1995.
MAZATECO, SAN JERÓNIMO TECOATL (SAN JERÓNIMO TECOATL, SAN ANTONIO ELOXOCHITLÁN) [MAA] 34,000 including 8,000 in Puebla (1990 census). Oaxaca, San Jerónimo Tecoatl, San Lucas Zoquiapan, Santa Cruz Acatepec, San Antonio Eloxochitlán, San Pedro Ocopetatillo, San Lorenzo, Santa Ana municipios, and a few in Puebla. 12 towns. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. 76% intelligibility of Huautla (closest), 26% of Jalapa. Typology: VSO, tonal, nouns up to 2 syllables, verbs long, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:40%, 1:40%, 2:10%, 3:5%, 4:5%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,700 to 2,700 meters. Bible portions 1995. Work in progress.
MAZATECO, SAN JUAN CHIQUIHUITLÁN [MAQ] 2,500 including 340 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. 47% intelligibility of Huautla (closest), 37% of Ayautla, 29% of Soyaltepec, 20% of Ixcatlán. Grammar. Typology: VSO, (with fronting of S or O for focus), tonal, clitics, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:3%, 1:3%, 2:23.5%, 3:60%, 4:10%, 5:.5%. Mountain slope. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,300 meters. NT 1991. Bible portions 1975-1987.
MAZATECO, SAN MIGUEL SOYALTEPEC (SOYALTEPEC MAZATEC, TEMASCAL MAZATEC, NUEVO SOYALTEPEC MAZATEC) [VMP] 23,000 speakers in the Municipio, including 6,000 monolinguals (1990 census). However, the original Soyaltepec variety may only be 900 speakers, most of whom are monolingual. Oaxaca, northwestern Tuxtepec District, part of Soyaltepec Municipio, towns of Santa María Jacatepec and San Miguel Soyaltepec, Soyaltepec Island. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. 5% intelligibility of Chiquihuitlán. A separate language from other Mazateco. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Description of phonology, tone, primers. A dam built in 1954, so this Municipio includes many speakers of other Mazateco varieties. A bilingual primary school and a secondary school on the Island. Electricity, telephone, ferry. Agriculturalists: maize, beans, bananas, squash; fishermen; embroidery. Altitude: less than 1000 feet.
MAZATECO, SAN PEDRO IXCATLÁN [MAO] 11,000 including 3,150 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, towns of Chichicazapa, Nuevo Ixcatlán, San Pedro Ixcatlán. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Mazatecan. 76% intelligibility of Huautla (closest), 78% lexical similarity; 86% lexical similarity with San Mateo, 85% with San Miguel and Soyaltepec, 82% with Jalapa de Diaz. Most speakers use Spanish as second language. Work in progress.
MEXICAN SIGN LANGUAGE (EL LENGUAJE MEXICANO DE LAS MANOS, EL LENGUAJE MANUAL DE MÉXICO, LA LENGUA MANUAL MEXICANA, EL LENGUAJE DE SEÑAS MEXICANAS, EL LENGUAJE MÍMICO) [MFS] 87,000 to 100,000 mainly monolingual users (1986 T.C. Smith-Stark), out of 1,300,000 deaf persons in Mexico (1986 Gallaudet University). Used throughout Mexico, except in some American Indian areas (see Mayan Sign Language): Mexico D.F. Guadalajara, Monterrey, Hermosillo, Morelia, Veracruz, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosí, Queretaro, Puebla, Cuernavaca, Torreón, Saltillo, Toluca. Deaf sign language. Dialect: IXTAPALAPA DF. Influence from French Sign Language. It does not follow Spanish grammar. The deaf are called 'sordos, sordomudos, los silentes'. Most deaf schools use the oralist method, but some use signs. At least 3 deaf churches in Mexico City, and 3 in Guadalajara. There are at least 8 bilingual dictionaries, 2 with American Sign Language. Preliminary investigation indicates lexical similarities from 85% to 100% among regional dialects; nearly all above 90% (A. Bickford SIL 1989). 19 schools for the deaf in Saltillo, Torreón, Guadalajara (3), Mexico City (6), Morelia, Cuernavaca, Monterrey, Ciudad Obregón, Hermosillo, Villahermosa, Matamoros, Veracruz; athletic clubs, craft schools, rehabilitation institutions. Users of ASL have 14% intelligibility of MSL. Work in progress.
MIXE, COATLÁN (SOUTHERN MIXE, SOUTHEASTERN MIXE) [MCO] 5,000 (1993 SIL). Speakers of all Mixe languages: 90,000 (1993 SIL). East central Oaxaca, including Coatlán, Camotlán, San José, Santa Isabel, Ixcuintepec. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Eastern Mixe. Dialects: COATLÁN MIXE, CAMOTLÁN MIXE. Dictionary. Typology: non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:50%, 2:25%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 500 to 2,500 meters. NT 1976. Bible portions 1961-1967.
MIXE, GUICHICOVI (ISTHMUS MIXE, EASTERN MIXE) [MIR] 20,000 (1990 SIL). Northeastern Oaxaca, throughout the Municipio of San Juan Guichicovi, near the border of Veracruz, on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 3 towns. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Eastern Mixe. 30% literate. Typology: SOV, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics, prepositions, genitives and demonstratives before noun heads, relative clauses after head, question words initial. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1988. Bible portions 1962-1969.
MIXE, JUQUILA [MXQ] 15,000 (1993 SIL). East central Oaxaca, including the municipios of Juquila, Quetzaltepec, Ocotepec, and 1 or 2 other towns. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Eastern Mixe. Dialects: JUQUILA MIXE, QUETZALTEPEC MIXE, OCOTEPEC MIXE. NT 1980. Bible portions 1975.
MIXE, MAZATLÁN (TUTLA MIXE) [MZL] 15,000 to 20,000 (1993 SIL). Eastern Oaxaca, including 7 towns. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Eastern Mixe. Work in progress.
MIXE, NORTHEASTERN [MVE] 20,500 (1990 census). Northeastern Oaxaca, several towns in the northeastern part of the Mixe District, including those listed as dialects. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Eastern Mixe. Dialects: PUXMETECÁN MIXE, SAN JUAN COTZOCÓN MIXE, OLOTEPEC MIXE, MIXIXTLÁN MIXE, TAMAZULAPAM MIXE, ZACATEPEC MIXE, ATITLÁN MIXE. Puxmetecán may not be a dialect. About as close to Totontepec Mixe as Portuguese is to Spanish. Tropical forest. Mountain foothills. Swidden agriculturalists, some cash crops. Bible portions 1994. Work in progress.
MIXE, TLAHUITOLTEPEC (WESTERN MIXE) [MXP] 5,000 (1991 SIL). Northeastern Oaxaca. Some have moved into central Oaxaca, in the area of Albarradas Zapoteco, 3 towns. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Western Mixe. Typology: SOV, VOS, non-tonal, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:50%, 2:30%, 3:9%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,845 to 3,380 meters. NT 1988. Bible portions 1965.
MIXE, TOTONTEPEC (NORTHERN MIXE) [MTO] 5,200 speakers including 870 monolinguals (1990 census). Northeastern Oaxaca, 10 towns. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Western Mixe. The most distinct of the Mixe varieties. 89% intelligibility of Acatepec, 79%% of Alotepec, 72% of Tlahuitoltepec, 70% of Mixistlán. 50% literate. Typology: SOV, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:15%, 1:15%, 2:20%, 3:25%, 4:20%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,200 to 2,300 meters. NT 1989. Bible portions 1960.
MIXTECO, ALACATLATZALA (HIGHLAND GUERRERO MIXTECO) [MIM] 18,000 to 20,000 including 6,000 to 7,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Over 300,000 speakers in all Mixtecan languages (1995). Eastern Guerrero, towns of Alacatlatzala, Ocuapa, Potoichan. There are tiny communities in Acapulco, Guerrero; Cuautla, Morelos; and Culiacán, Sinaloa. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: POTOICHAN. Isolated. 65% to 85% intelligibility with Metlatonoc. They switch to Spanish when trying to communicate with people from Silacayoapan, although some had 70% intelligibility of that. About 20% (nearly all men) speak some Spanish for trade, or for travel or work outside the area. Less than 5% are bilingual in Tlapaneco or Nahuatl, resulting from intermarriage. Mixteco is the language of choice in nearly all domains; at home, in local shops, among officials in the town hall for business, for teaching in the classroom even though materials are in Spanish. High appreciation for Mixteco among speakers. Desire for literacy in either language is somewhat limited. Some adaptation of materials for Potoichan may be needed. 30% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:60%, 1:20%, 2:19%, 3:1%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,076 to 2,153 meters. Bible portions 1990-1995. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, AMOLTEPEC (WESTERN SOLA DE VEGA MIXTEC) [MBZ] 5,000 (1992 SIL) including 1,200 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, western edge of Sola de Vega District, Santiago Amoltepec Municipio, and settlements (Las Cuevas, La Mesilla, El Armadillo, El Mamey, El Zapote, Colonia de Jesus, Barranca Oscura). Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Cuicatec. 63% intelligibility of Northeastern Jamiltepec, 52% of Western Jamiltepec, 46% of Yosondua, 42% of Nuyoo, 32% of Zacatepec, 25% of San Juan Colorado, 20% of Jamiltepec, 15% of Chayuco. Speakers in Amoltepec center are bilingual in Spanish, but those in the outlying rancherias are quite monolingual. Schools through 6th grade. Access by air strips or 5-hour walk from La Independencia. Many men work outside the area. Altitude: 4,600 feet.
MIXTECO, CACALOXTEPEC (HUAJUAPAN MIXTECO) [MIU] 848 speakers including 100 monolinguals (1990 census). 1,254 in the language. Most monolinguals are over 50. Oaxaca, town of Santiago Cacaloxtepec. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 59% intelligibility with Silacayoapan (closest). Speakers use Spanish as second language.
MIXTECO, CENTRAL JUXTLAHUACA (JUXTLAHUACA MIXTEC) [VMC] 16,000 speakers, including 5,500 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, central Santiago Juxtlahuaca, towns of San Sebastian Tecomaxtlahuaca, San Miguel Tlacotepec, Santos Reyes Tepejillo, Santa María Tindú, and Santa María Yucunicoco. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Cuicatec. 84% intelligibility of Silacayoapan, 80% of YYuucucani aand San Miguuel Peras, 63% of Santa Cruz Mixtepec, 48% of Coicoyán, 37% of Tezoatlán, 18% of Zacatepec, 10% of Ñumí. Secondary school. Telephone, electricity, clinics, trucks, busses. Many work in Culiacán or the USA. Little tillable land. Desert. Mountain slope. Altitude: 4,000 to 6,000 feet.
MIXTECO, CENTRAL PUEBLA (SANTA MARÍA CHIGMECATITLÁN MIXTECO, CHIGMECATITLÁN MIXTEC) [MII] 1,600, 217 over 50 years old, 273 monolinguals (1990 census). Puebla, straight south of Puebla city, about half way to Oaxaca border. Includes Santa Catarina Tlaltemplan. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 23% intelligibility with Chazumba (Southern Puebla; closest). An 'island' of Mixteco surrounded by Popoloca and Nahuatl. Low intelligibility with all Mixteco; very different. A lot of bilingualism in Spanish. Very dry area. Altitude: 4,000 to 5,000 feet.
MIXTECO, CHALCATONGO [VMN] 4,453 speakers including 226 monolinguals (1990 census). West central Oaxaca. Many villages. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: SAN MIGUEL CHALCATONGO MIXTEC. Survey needed.
MIXTECO, CHAZUMBA (CHAZUMBA MIXTEC, NORTHERN OAXACA MIXTECO) [QMB] 2,500 speakers including 36 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, close to the Puebla border, with a few in Puebla. Near Southern Puebla Mixteco. The largest group speaking Mixteco is in Cosoltepec, southwest of Chazumba, where 27% of the village still speak Mixteco. Some other villages with speakers are Santiago Chazumba, San Pedro y San Pablo Tequixtepec (in Oaxaca), Zapotitlán, Petlalcingo, and Totoltepec de Guerrero (in Puebla). Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 75% of the speakers are over 50 years old, scattered over a large area, with most villages having fewer than 15% of the population able to speak Mixteco. A large percentage of the populations of each village no longer speak Mixteco, but speak Spanish. A distinct language. 65% inherent intelligibility of Xayacatlán, 53% of Cacaloxtepec, 24% of Chigmecatitlán, 19% of Cuyamecalco (Coatzospan). Survey needed.
MIXTECO, COASTAL GUERRERO (AYUTLA MIXTECO) [MIY] 8,500 including 3,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Guerrero, Ayutla. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 75% to 100% literate. Coastal. Bible portions 1970-1972. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, CUYAMECALCO (CUYAMECALCO MIXTEC, CUICATLÁN MIXTEC) [QMZ] 2,600 speakers, including 143 monolinguals, 660 speakers in San Miguel, including 72 monolinguals, 17 between 5 and 14 years old (1994 SIL). Oaxaca, Cuyamecalco, San Miguel Santa Flor. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. San Juan Coatzospan is close, but inherent intelligibility is inadequate. Scrub forest. Mountain slope. Pastoralists, swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,000 to 2,000 meters.
MIXTECO, DIUXI-TILANTONGO (CENTRAL NOCHISTLÁN MIXTECO) [MIS] 8,500 including 300 monolingguaals (1990 census). Oaxaca, 20 towns and villages in the Diuxi and Tilantongo area, Oaxaca City, Puebla City, Mexico City. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 37% intelligibility with Peñoles (Eastern); closer to Nuxaá. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics, stems are CVCV or CVV. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:30-20%, 1:20-30%, 2:30-20%, 3:15-30%, 4:0-3%, 5:0-1%. Mountain mesa, slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,000 to 3,200 meters. Bible portions 1973-1993. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, EASTERN (PEÑOLES MIXTECO) [MIL] 11,000 including 2,000 monolinguals (1990 census). West central Oaxaca. Santa María Peñoles municipio, Monteflor, San Mateo Tepantepec, Estetla and Cholula agencias; Santiago Tlazoyaltepec municipio; and Huazolotipac agencia in Huitepec municipio, Zaachila District, and San Mateo Sindihui town. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialects: SANTA MARÍA PEÑOLES (PEÑOLES), SANTIAGO TLAZOYALTEPEC (TLAZOYALTEPEC), SAN MATEO TEPANTEPEC (TEPANTEPEC). 14% intelligibility with Chalcatongo. Nuxaa has 30% intelligibility with Peñoles. 40% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:25%, 1:20%, 2:30%, 3:20%, 4:4%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists, sedentary pastoralists. Altitude: 1,500 to 2,600 meters. NT 1979. Bible portions 1966.
MIXTECO, EASTERN JAMILTEPEC-CHAYUCO (CHAYUCU MIXTECO) [MIH] 30,000 (1977 SIL). Southwest Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 69% intelligibility with Western Jamiltepec. NT 1979. Bible portions 1972.
MIXTECO, EASTERN JAMILTEPEC-SAN CRISTOBAL [MXT] 10,000 (1983 SIL). Southwest Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Intelligibility and sociolinguistic attitudes make separate literature from Chayucu advisable. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:25%, 1:50%, 2:20%, 3:3%, 4:2%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 750 to 1,000 feet. NT 1983. Bible portions 1972.
MIXTECO, EASTERN PUTLA (SANTA CRUZ ITUNDUJIA MIXTECO, ITUNDUJIA MIXTEC) [MCE] 1,082 speakers including 33 monolinguals (1990 census). Nearly all of the monolinguals and over half of the speakers are over 50 years old. Oaxaca, Putla District, 10 km. southwest of Yosondua, 40 km. southeast of Putla. Most in Morelos and Guerrero villages. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 60% intelligibility of Yosondua, 59% of Chalcatongo, 25% of San Martín Peras, 15% of Amoltepec, 12% of Zacatepec, 10% of San Esteban Atatlahuca, Nuyoo, 0% of Ixtayutla. Bilingual in Spanish.
MIXTECO, METLATONOC (SAN RAFAEL MIXTECO) [MXV] 60,000 to 65,000 including 20,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Eastern Guerrero, Metlatonoc, San Rafael, and towns further south. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 90% or higher intelligibility among towns, but only 50% with most in the Alacatlatzala area. Xochapa Mixteco is a separate language. Mountain slope. Bible portions 1959. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, MITLATONGO (MITLATONGO MIXTEC) [VMM] 1,800 speakers (1994 SIL). Oaxaca, Nochixtlán, Santiago Mitlatongo, Santa Cruz Mitlatongo. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Cuicatec. 70% intelligibility of Yutanduchi, 56% of Peñoles, 54% of San Juan Tamazola, 43% of Teita, 10% of Nuxaa, 8% of Diuxi. All children and adults speak Mixteco. Children are learning Spanish, but it is limited. Secondary school. Electricity, trucks. Some men work outside, and a few in the USA. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: maize, beans, anona (ice cream fruit), lima beans, dates. Altitude: 7,000 feet.
MIXTECO, NORTH CENTRAL NOCHIXTLÁN (TIDAA MIXTECO) [MTX] 550 speakers, including 2 monolinguals over 50, out of a population of about 900 (1990 census). Most speakers are over 40, 13% of children 5-15 years old are speakers. Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 60% intelligibility with Peñoles (Eastern); closest. Nuxaa is close. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Children are not learning Mixteco. Survey needed.
MIXTECO, NORTHEASTERN JAMILTEPEC (SANTIAGO IXTAYUTLA MIXTEC, IXTAYUTLA MIXTECO) [VMJ] 5,500 speakers, including 2,800 monolinguals or more (1990 census). Oaxaca, Jamiltepec District, Santiago Ixtayutla and about 15 settlements (Nuyuku, Xiniyuva, La Humedad, Pueblo Viejo, Musko, Yukuyaa, Llano Verde, Yomuche, Carasul, Frutillo). Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Cuicatec. 79% intelligibility of Amoltepec, 59% of Chayuco, 49% of Jamiltepec, 40% of San Juan Colorado, 30% of Zacatepec. School through 6th grade in Ixtayutla. Some settlements have schools. Access by dirt road or air strip at Humedad, foot (3 to 4 hours to La Independencia). Subsistence agriculturalists: bananas, beans, maize; sell rope and goats. Altitude: 1,800 feet. Christian, traditional religion.
MIXTECO, NORTHERN TLAXIACO (SAN JUAN ÑUMÍ MIXTECO, ÑUMÍ MIXTECO) [MOS] 14,000 (1990 census). Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, San Juan Ñumí and Santiago Nundichi municipios; Teposcolula District, San Antonino Monte Verde and San Sebastián Nicananduta municipios. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: MONTE VERDE MIXTECO. 40% literate. Bible portions 1995. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, NORTHWEST OAXACA [MXA] 2,500 including 2,195 monolinguals (1990 census). Northwest Oaxaca, towns of Santos Reyes Yucuná, Guadalupe Portezuelo, and San Simón Zahuatlán. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Typology: tonal, SVO, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:20%, 1:35%, 2:40%, 3:0%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,500 to 1,800 meters. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SAN AGUSTÍN TLACOTEPEC (TLACOTEPEC MIXTEC) [QMW] Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 89% inherent intelligibility of Magdalena Peñasco Mixteco.
MIXTECO, SAN ANTONIO HUITEPEC (ZAACHILA MIXTECO, HUITEPEC MIXTEC) [MXS] 4,000 including over 200 monolinguals, and 2,000 in the town of Huitepec (1990 census). Oaxaca, 60 km. west of Zaachila, 25 km. southwest of Peñoles, Huitepec Municipio, towns of San Antonio Huitepec, San Francisco Yucucundo, and San Francisco Infiernillo. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 77% intelligibility of Estetla (Eastern), 75% of Chalcatongo, 52% of Peñoles, 20% of Yosondua, 8% of Tilantongo. Spoken in most homes in Huitepec town; more so in rural areas. Secondary school. Telephone, bus. Pine forest. Mountain slope. Altitude: 7,000 to 8,000 feet.
MIXTECO, SAN BARTOLO SOYALTEPEC (SOYALTEPEC MIXTEC) [VMQ] 322 speakers out of 926 population (1990 census). Some speakers are children. Oaxaca, Teposcolula District, village of San Bartolo Soyaltepec and Guadalupe Gabilera. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 28% intelligibility of Tilantongo, 25% of Numi, 23% of Apoala. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Children are learning Mixteco in Guadalupe. Survey needed.
MIXTECO, SAN BARTOLOMÉ YUCUAÑE (YUCUAÑE MIXTECO) [MVG] 515, including 88 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, northeastern Tlaxiaco District, 30 km. southeast of Tlaxiaco, town of San Bartolomé Yucuañe. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. May be closest to Diuxi Mixteco, but not close enough to any other Mixteco for adequate comprehension. Speakers have 87% intelligibility of San Cristobal Amoltepec, 86% of Yosoyúa, 85% of Magdalena Peñasco, 64% of Teita, 60% of Nduaxico (Northern Tlaxiaco Mixteco), 56% of Tlacotepec. All ages and sexes speak some Spanish; some women have only basic knowledge, and some young people and men are very fluent. Everyone prefers Mixteco for family and informal usage. Children all speak Mixteco. In San Agustín Tlacotepec all but older people prefer and speak Spanish. 2 dialects in different halves of the town. Possibly 40% literate in Spanish. Primary and secondary schools. Electricity, busses, clinic. Many work in the D.F. and USA. Tropical forest, scrub forest desert. Mountain valley. Peasant agriculturalists: maize; palm and cactus fiber gathering. Altitude: 6,000 feet.
MIXTECO, SAN ESTEBAN ATATLAHUCA (SOUTH CENTRAL TLAXIACO MIXTECO) [MIB] 12,000 including 1,300 monolinguals (1990 census). West central Oaxaca, towns of San Esteban Atatlahuca Santa Lucía Monteverde, and one other. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: SANTA LUCÍA MONTEVERDE. 68% intelligibility of Yosondua. San Agustín Tlacotepec may need separate literature (69% intelligibility of San Esteban; closest). Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:30%, 2:15%, 3:5%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 3,000 meters. NT 1973. Bible portions 1952-1964.
MIXTECO, SAN JUAN COATZOSPAN (TEOTITLÁN MIXTECO, COATZOSPAN MIXTECO) [MIZ] 5,000 speakers, including 500 monolinguals (1994 SIL). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 25% intelligibility with Chazumba. Cuyamecalco is close, but inherent intelligibility is inadequate. 60% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish for Women: 0:90%, 1:5%, 2:2%, 3:1%, 4:1%, 5:1%; Men: 0:10%, 1:61%, 2:25%, 3:2%, 4:1%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Pastoralists, swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,000 to 2,000 meters. Bible portions 1971-1978. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SAN JUAN COLORADO [MJC] 13,500 including 3,100 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:60%, 1:35%, 2:5%, 3:0%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 500 to 700 feet. NT 1994. Bible portions 1986-1990.
MIXTECO, SAN JUAN MIXTEPEC (EASTERN JUXTLAHUACA MIXTECO) [MIX] 12,000 including 2,600 monolinguaaals (1990 census). Oaxaca, San Juan Mixtepec. Also in Bakersfield, California, USA. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Distinct from other Mixteco. Limited bilingualism. Bible portions 1974. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SAN JUAN TAMAZOLA (TAMAZOLA MIXTEC) [VMX] 2,500 (1990 census). Oaxaca, Nochixtlán, San Juan Tamazola. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec.
MIXTECO, SAN JUAN TEITA (SAN JUAN TEITA MIXTEC, TEITA MIXTECO) [QMC] 550 (1994 SIL). Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, 30 km. southeast of Tlaxiaco, towns of Teita, San Agustín Tlacotepec. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. May be closest to Diuxi Mixteco, but not close enough to any other Mixteco for adequate comprehension. All ages and sexes speak some Spanish; some women have only basic knowledge, and some young people and men are very fluent. Everyone prefers Mixteco for family and informal usage. Children all speak Mixteco. In San Agustín Tlacotepec all but older people prefer and speak Spanish. Possibly 40% literate in Spanish. Tropical forest, scrub forest desert. Mountain valley. Peasant agriculturalists, palm and cactus fiber gathering. Altitude: 1,500 to 2,500 meters. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SAN MIGUEL EL GRANDE [MIG] 10,000 including 800 monolinguals (1990 census). West central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialects: SAN PEDRO MOLINOS, SAN MATEO PEÑASCO, SANTA MARÍA YOSOYÚA, SANTA CATARINA TICUÁ. 86% intelligibility with Yosondua (closest). Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Pine forest. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,846 to 3,077 meters. NT 1951, out of print. Bible portions 1947-1955.
MIXTECO, SAN MIGUEL PIEDRAS [QMG] 448 speakers out of a population of 1,123 (1990 census). Oaxaca, Nochixtlán District, Yutanduchi de Guerrero. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 49% intelligibility of Estetla (Eastern), 29/5 of Soyaltepec, Yosondua, 18% of Peñoles, 15% of Chalcatongo, 13% of Tilantongo, 11% of Chicahua. A few speakers are in the lower aage categories, but most are over 50 years old. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Survey needed.
MIXTECO, SAN PEDRO TUTUTEPEC [MTU] 817 speakers including children and 2 monolinguals, out of 30,046 in the ethnic group (1990 census). Most speakers are over 50 years old. Oaxaca, 10 km. north of coastal highway, on dirt road that turns off pavement 40 km. southeast of Jamiltepec. Includes San Pedro Tututepec, Santa María Acatepec, Santa Cruz Tututepec, other towns and villages. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: SANTA MARÍA ACATEPEC. 61% intelligibility with Ixtayutla (closest), 50% with Pinotepa. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Dry and warm. Altitude: 2,000 feet or less.
MIXTECO, SANTA MAGDALENA PEÑASCO (MAGDALENA PEÑASCO MIXTEC, PEÑASCO MIXTECO) [QMP] 4,200 speakers, including over 1,050 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, municipios of Magdalena Peñasco, San Cristobal Amoltepec, and San Agustín Tlacotepec. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: SAN AGUSTÍN TLACOTEPEC. Speakers have 89% intelligibility of San Cristobal Amoltepec, 76% of Tijaltepec and Sinicahua, 73% of San Miguel el Grande, 72% of Tlacotepec, 68% of Ocotepec, 64% of Nduaxico, 58% of Yucuañe. A distinct language, different from Santiago Amoltepec Mixteco. There is pride in the language and culture. Bilingual primary school and a secondary school. Microbus service, electricity. Agriculturalists: maize, weavers: tenates, hats. Altitude: 6,600 feet.
MIXTECO, SANTA MARÍA APASCO (SANTIAGO APOALA MIXTECO, NORTHERN NOCHIXTLÁN MIXTECO, CHOCHO MIXTECO) [MIP] 7,866 speakers, including 6,728 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, 40 km. north northwest of Nochixtlán. Includes towns of Santa Catarina Ocotlán, San Miguel Chicagua, San Miguel Chicahuastepec, Jocotepec, Santa María Apasco, San Miguel Huautla, Nduayaco, and 2 others. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 26% intelligibility with Southern Puebla Mixteco (closest). Good attitudes toward language; desire for literature. Bible portions 1966. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SANTIAGO YOSONDUA (SOUTHERN TLAXIACO MIXTECO) [MPM] 5,000 including 240 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 70% intelligibility with San Miguel el Grande and Chalcatongo (closest). San Mateo Sindihui may need separate literature (19% intelligibility with Yosondua; closest). Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:15%, 1:20%, 2:35%, 3:20%, 4:5%, 5:5%. Mountain mesa, slope. Peasant agriculturalists. NT 1988. Bible portions 1973.
MIXTECO, SANTO TOMÁS OCOTEPEC [MIE] 5,000 to 8,000 (1982 SIL). West central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: SANTA CATARINA YOSONOTU. 80% intelligibility with Ñumi (Northwestern Tlaxiaco). Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:40%, 1:30%, 2:25%, 3:5%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,500 meters. NT 1977. Bible portions 1965.
MIXTECO, SILACAYOAPAN [MKS] 15,000 to 17,000 including 1,500 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, including towns of Santo Domingo Tonala (5,704 in 1990 census) and San Jorge Nuchita (3,052). Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: SAN SIMÓN ZAHUATLÁN. 70% intelligibility with Metlatonoc, 68% with Santa María Peras. Cuatzoquitengo may need separate literature; testing incomplete; also Guadalupe Portezuelo (65% intelligibility with Silacayoapan). Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:20%, 1:40%, 2:28%, 3:10%, 4:2%, 5:0%. Mountain mesa. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,100 to 3,000 meters. NT in press (1996). Bible portions 1979-1986.
MIXTECO, SINDIHUI [QMH] 138 speakers, all over 50 years old (1990 census). West central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Distinct from Yutanduchi. Nearly extinct.
MIXTECO, SINICAHUA (SINICAHUA MIXTEC, SAN ANTONIO SINICAHUA MIXTECO) [QMI] 1,300 speakers, including 400 monolinguals or more (1990 census). Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, San Antonio Sinicahua, Siniyucu, and settlements of Sinicahua Municipio. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Speakers have 75% intelligibility of Yosoyúa, 73% of Ocotepec, 72% of San Miguel el Grande, and 51% of Nduaxico (Northern Tlaxiaco Mixteco). A distinct language. Speakers have extremely limited ability in Spanish. Primary and secondary schools. Electricity. Agriculturalists: maize, wheat, peas. Altitude: 8,600 feet.
MIXTECO, SOUTHEASTERN NOCHIXTLÁN (SANTO DOMINGO NUXAÁ MIXTECO, NUXAÁ MIXTEC) [MXY] 7,000 including 4,075 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Nochixtlán District, 30 km. along highway 190, starting 20 km. southeast of Nochixtlán, four turn-offs from highway 190. Well graded gravel road. Main towns are Santo Domingo Nuxaá, San Andrés Nuxiño, Santa Inez Zarogoza. Also Ojo de Agua Nuxaá, El Oro, La Herradura, La Unión Zaragoza, Reforma, La Paz, and other hamlets. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 60% to 70% intelligibility with Eastern Mixteco (Peñoles). Speakers understand little of San Miguel Piedras or San Pedro Tidaa Mixteco. They speak the language in the home. Spanish is preferred in Santa Inez Zaragoza; elsewhere Mixteco is preferred. 75% to 100% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal. Pine forest in highest areas, mixed deciduous forest, scrub in lower areas. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,800 to 2,500 meters. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SOUTHERN PUEBLA (ACATLÁN MIXTECO) [MIT] 1,330 speakers including 386 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, southwestern Puebla, town of Zapotitlán Palmas. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 53% intelligibility with Cacaloxtepec (Huajuapan; closest). Most children under 16 have limited or no ability in Mixteco and are monolingual in Spanish. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:0%, 1:5%, 2:20%, 3:60%, 4:10%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,800 to 2,000 meters. NT 1978. Bible portions 1966.
MIXTECO, SOUTHERN PUTLA (SANTA MARÍA ZACATEPEC MIXTECO, ZACATEPEC MIXTEC, "TACUATE") [MZA] 6,000 including 3,000 in Zacatepec and 3,000 in surrounding rancherías and villages (1992 E. Farris SIL). Oaxaca, 45 km. south of Putla, on paved road from Tlaxiaco to Pinotepa Nacional. Towns of Tapanco, Nejapa, Atotonilco. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 64% intelligibility with Ixtayutla (closest) 63% with Jicaltepec (Western Jamiltepec Mixteco), 40% to 50% with Metlatonoc, 25% to 30% with Yoloxochitl. Called "Tacuates" by people in the area including Indians, which can be offensive depending on context and other signals. 30% literate. Altitude: 4,000 feet. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, SOUTHWESTERN TLAXIACO (SANTIAGO NUYOO MIXTECO, NUYOO MIXTECO, SOUTHEASTERN OCOTEPEC MIXTECO) [MEH] 6,000 including 1,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialect: YUCUHITI. 54% intelligibility with San Esteban Atatlahuca (closest). 60% literate. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, TACAHUA (TACAHUA MIXTEC, SANTA CRUZ TACAHUA MIXTECO) [QMT] 585 speakers, including 78 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, east of Yosondua, southeast of San Miguel el Grande. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 70% of the monolinguals are over 50 years old, none under 35.
MIXTECO, TEZOATLÁN DE SEGURA Y LUNA [MXB] 6,200 including 850 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Tezoatlán area, southwest of Huajuapan, about 40 to 50 km. off the highway by gravel road; 25 miles south of Cacaloxtepec; towns of Yucuquimi de Ocampo, San Andrés Yutatío, Santa María Yucuñuti, Yucuñuti de Benito Juárez, San Juan Diquiyó, San Juan Cuitito, San Marcos Delgazón. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 70% to 80% intelligibility with Silacayoapan and Atenango. Speakers have pride in the language. Children speak the vernacular. Some bilinguals; many monolinguals. Swidden agriculturalists: maize; basket weavers. Bible portions 1992. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, TIJALTEPEC (TIJALTEPEC MIXTEC, SAN PABLO TIJALTEPEC MIXTECO) [QMJ] 3,300 to 3,500 speakers, including 800 to 900 monolinguals or more (1990 census). Oaxaca, southeastern Tlaxiaco District, towns of San Pablo Tijaltepec, Santa María Yosoyúa, and all their communities. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Speakers have 89% intelligibility of San Miguel el Grande and Yosoyúa, 82% of San Mateo Peñasco, 81% of Sinicahua and 66% of Teita. A distinct language. Primary schools, 1 secondary school. Electricity. Some work outside in Veracruz or the USA. Agriculturalists: maize, wheat, beans, chilacayote squash. Altitude: 7,500 feet.
MIXTECO, WESTERN JAMILTEPEC (COASTAL MIXTECO, LOWLAND JICALTEPEC MIXTECO, PINOTEPA NACIONAL MIXTECO) [MIO] 20,000 including 2,200 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, around Jamiltepec. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:23%, 1:24%, 2:22%, 3:13%, 4:10%, 5:8%. Coastal plains. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 to 500 meters. NT 1980. Bible portions 1962-1967.
MIXTECO, WESTERN JUXTLAHUACA (COICOYÁN MIXTEC) [JMX] 15,000 to 20,000, including 7,000 in San Martín Peras, 2,000 in Santa Cruz Yucucani, 2,000 in San José Yoxocaño (1992 SIL). 7,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca-Guerrero border due west of Juxtlahuaca.In Oaxaca: San Martín Peras is at 17" 21' N Lat, 98" 14' W Long. Other municipios: Río Frijol, Santa Cruz Yucucani, San José Yoxocaño (all towns in these municipios). In Guerrero: Malvabisco, Rancho Limón, Río Aguacate, Boca de Mamey. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Dialects: SAN MARTÍN PERAS, COICOYÁN, SAN JUAN PIÑAS. 82% intelligibility of Metlatonoc, 80% of Silacayoapan, 65% of Juxtlahuaca, 19% of Cuatzoquitengo, 16% of Zacatepec. Very little comprehension or use of Spanish. There is a primary school in San Martín. Access by road. Many work in Culiacán during the cold months. Electricity, stores. Pine forest. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists. Altitude: 6,500 feet. Traditional religion, Christian. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, XOCHAPA [QMX] 10,000 speakers, including 4,000 monolinguals (1994 SIL) in 14 villages. Eastern Guerrero, near Metlatonoc. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 92% intelligibility of Metlatonoc. Metlatonoc has 70% intelligibility of Xochapa. A separate language from Metlatonoc. Mountain slope. Work in progress.
MIXTECO, YOLOXOCHITL (YOLOXOCHITL MIXTEC) [QMY] 2,540 speakers (1994 SIL). Southeastern Guerrero, San Luís Acatlán Municipio, just south of Tlapaneco, and about half way between Metlatonoc and Ayutla Mixteco; town of Yoloxochitl and possibly a few speakers in Cuanacastitlán. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. Metlatonoc has 35% intelligibility of Yoloxochitl, and Ayutla has 30% intelligibility of it. Mixteco used for everything except speaking to outsiders. There is a bilingual primary school. Electricity, telephone, trucks. Coastal. Agriculturalists: maize, beans, tropical fruits, jamaica; embroidery. Altitude: 1,600 feet.
MIXTECO, YUTANDUCHI (SOUTHERN NOCHIXTLÁN MIXTEC, YUTANDUCHI MIXTEC) [MAB] 1,800 including 38 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Nochixtlán District, Yutanduchi de Guerrero. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Mixtec-Cuicatec, Mixtec. 49% intelligibility of Estetla (Eastern), 48% of San Juan Tamazola, 20% of Yosondua and Soyaltepec, 36% to 18% of Peñoles, 15% of Chalcatongo, 13% of Tilantongo. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Primary and secondary school. Electricity, TV, radio, telephone nearby. Bus service. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists; export palm leaf; make rope and woven mats. Altitude: 5,000 feet.
MOCHO (MOTOZINTLECO) [MHC] 168 speakers, no monolinguals (1990 census). Chiapas, on border of Guatemala and Mexico (area of Tuzantán and Motozintla). Mayan, Kanjobalan-Chujean, Kanjobalan, Mocho. Dialects: MOTOZINTLECO, TUZANTECO. Only a few speakers still use the language in the home. Second language is Spanish. Not intelligible with Mam dialects (Paul Townsend SIL 1973). Tuzanteco and Mocho are two distinct dialects of the same language (Terrence Kaufman 1967).
NAHUATL, CENTRAL (CENTRAL AZTEC) [NHN] (63,000 or more in the population in 1986) Speakers of all Nahuatl varieties: 1,376,898 (1980 census). States of Tlaxcala and Puebla. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. There are some monolingual children. The people use Spanish as second language.
NAHUATL, CENTRAL PUEBLA (SOUTHWESTERN PUEBLA AZTEC) [NCX] 16,000 speakers, including 1,430 monolinguals (1994 SIL). South of Puebla City (97" 08' 56 W Long, 17" 10' 27 N Lat), Teopantlán, Tepatlaxco de Hidalgo, Tochimilco, Atoyatempan, Huatlathauca, Huehuetlán (near Molcaxac). Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 87% intelligibility of Zongolica, Ver.; 82% of Chilac, Pue. and Tlaxpanaloya, Pue.; 69% of Zautla, Pue.; 68% of Canoa, Pue.; 60% of Teopoxco, Oax. 70% to 80% of children entering school in some towns do not speak Spanish. In other towns the younger generation are not learning Nahuatl. There are schools in most towns. Access by road. Daily bus service. Agriculturalists, mat makers, laborers to other areas. Altitude: 5,000 feet or more.
NAHUATL, CLASSICAL (CLASSICAL AZTEC) [NCI] Central Mexico, Tenochtitlán, Aztec Empire. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. NT 1833. Extinct.
NAHUATL, COATEPEC (COATEPEC AZTEC) [NAZ] 1,400 speakers including 15 monolinguals, 11 of which are over 50 (1990 census). It is reported that only those ove4r 40 speak the language. State of Mexico, Coatepec Costales, Tlacultlapa, Texcalco, Tonalapa, Maxela, Machito de las Flores, Chilacachapa, Miacacsingo, Los Sabinos, and Acapetlahuaya, all west of Iguala, Guerrero. The language has strongest usage in Coatepec Costales and Chilacachapa. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 54% intelligibility of Santa Catarina (Morelos), 48% of Atliaca (Guerrero), 35% of Copalillo Guerrero, 28% of Zongolica (Orizaba). Speakers use Spanish as second language. Survey needed.
NAHUATL, DURANGO (MEXICANERO, DURANGO AZTEC) [NLN] 1,000 (1990 census). Southern Durango, San Pedro de la Jicoras and San Juan de Buenaventura. One day trail from nearest air strip or highway. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 'Mexicanero' is the local name. 76% intelligibility with Michoacán Nahuatl (closest). Language use is vigorous, including among children. Moderate bilingualism in Spanish. Work in progress.
NAHUATL, GUERRERO (GUERRERO AZTEC) [NAH] 300,000 (1991 SIL). Balsas River, Guerrero. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:20%, 2:40%, 3:20%, 4:10%, 5:5%. Mountain mesa. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 600 to 2,200 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1987. Bible portions 1957-1978.
NAHUATL, HUASTECA, EASTERN (EASTERN HUASTECA AZTEC, HIDALGO AZTEC, HUASTECA NAHUATL) [NAI] 410,000 (1991 SIL). Huautla, Hidalgo is the center; also in Puebla and Veracruz. 1,500 villages. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 85% intelligibility between Eastern and Western Huasteca Nahuatl. Survey of other dialects needed. Radio programs. Typology: non-tonal, SVO, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:10%, 2:10%, 3:10%, 4:19%, 5:1%. Mountain mesa. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 0 to 2,000 meters. NT 1984. Bible portions 1975.
NAHUATL, HUASTECA, WESTERN (WESTERN HUASTECA AZTEC, TAMAZUNCHALE AZTEC, HUASTECA NAHUATL) [NHW] 400,000 (1991 SIL). Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosí is the center; also in Hidalgo. 1,500 villages. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Dialect: CENTRAL HUASTECA NAHUATL. 85% intelligibility between Eastern and Western Huasteco Nahuatl. Separate literature may be needed for 100,000 speakers of a Central dialect. Radio programs. Typology: non-tonal, SVO, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:10%, 2:10%, 3:10%, 4:19%, 5:1%. Mountain mesa. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 0 to 2,000 meters. NT 1986. Bible portions 1938-1986.
NAHUATL, HUAXCALECA (HUAXCALECA AZTEC, CHICHIQUILA NÁHUATL) [NHQ] 7,000 speakers, including 55 monolinguals (1990 census). 800 speakers are over 50. 2% under 20 speak Nahuatl. 40 of the monolinguals are over 50. The population in about 12 municipios no longer speak Nahuatl. Puebla, towns of Chichiquila and Chilchotla. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 87% intelligibility of Sierra de Puebla Nahuatl, 85% on Orizaba Nahuatl.
NAHUATL, ISTHMUS, COSOLEACAQUE (COSOLEACAQUE AZTEC) [NHK] 5,144 speakers, including 12 monolinguals (1990 census). Veracruz, Cosoleacaque, Oteapan, Jáltipan de Morelos, Hidalgotitlán, Soconusco. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 84% intelligibility of Pajapan, 83% of Mecayapan, 46% on Xoteapan. Most of the monolinguals are over 50 years old. Spanish is used as second language. Survey needed.
NAHUATL, ISTHMUS, MECAYAPAN (ISTHMUS NAHUAT, ISTHMUS AZTEC, MECAYAPAN NAHUAT) [NAU] 20,000 (1994 SIL). Southern Veracruz, Mecayapan Municipio, Mecayapan and Tatahuicapan towns. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. It may be intelligible with Pipil of Honduras and El Salvador. Bible portions 1952. Work in progress.
NAHUATL, ISTHMUS, PAJAPAN [NHP] 7,000 speakers, including 500 monolinguals (1990 census). Veracruz, Pajapan, San Juan Volador, Santanón, Sayultepec, Jicacal. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 83% intelligibility of Mecayapan (Isthmus Nahuatl), 94% of Oteapan (Cosoleacaque). Bible portions 1990. Work in progress.
NAHUATL, IXHUATLANCILLO [NHX] 4,000 speakers, including 600 monolinguals or more (1990 census). Veracruz, Ixhuatlancillo Municipio, town of Ixhuatlancillo, just 15 minutes north of Orizaba city. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 67% intelligibility of Chilac (Southeastern Puebla), 60% of Zautla, 50% of Canoa and Teopoxco, 48% of Orizaba, low intelligibility of other Nahuatl. 60% to 70% of each age group is monolingual. 50% of children are totally monolingual upon entering school. There are primary schools. Electricity, a telephone, busses to Oaxaca and 1 secondary. Animal husbandry: cattle; agriculturalists: sugarcane; merchants. Altitude: 4,500 feet.
NAHUATL, MICHOACÁN (MICHOACÁN NAHUAL, MICHOACÁN AZTEC) [NCL] 3,000 (1990 census). Michoacán near the coast around Pómaro. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 35% literate. Typology: SVO, VSO, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:0%, 1:0%, 2:0%, 3:45%, 4:50%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 200 meters. NT in press (1996). Bible portions 1964-1996.
NAHUATL, MORELOS [NHM] 15,000 speakers, including possibly 200 to 500 monolinguals (1990 census). Morelos, towns of Cuentepec, Santa Catarina Tepoztlán, Tetela del Volcán, Hueyapan, Temixco, Xocotitlán, Tepetlapa, Puente de Ixtla. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 72% inherent intelligibility of Cuaohueyalta (Northern Puebla), 69% of Atliaca (Guerrero), 54% of Macuilocatl (Western Huasteca), 40% of Yahualica (Eastern Huasteca), 36% of Pómaro (Michoacán), 34% of Tetelcingo, 27% of Chilac (Southeast Puebla), 19% of Tatóscac (Highland Puebla, 0% on Mecayapan (Isthmus). There is a bilingual primary school and a secondary school. Only a few children do not speak Nahuatl. Speakers use limited Spanish as second language. Electricity, telephone, bus service. Typology: non-tonal, SVO, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:0%, 1:5%, 2:10%, 3:45%, 4:30%, 5:10%. Mountain mesa. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 4,000 feet or higher.
NAHUATL, NORTH OAXACA [NHY] 9,000 including 1,400 monolinguals (1990 census). Northwestern Oaxaca, near Southeast Puebla Nahuatl, towns of Santa María Teopoxco, San Antonio Nanahuatipan, San Gabriel Casa Blanca, Teotitlán del Camino, San Martín Toxpalan, Ignacio Zaragosaa, Apixtepec, El Manzano de Mazatlán, Cosolapa, Tesonapa (one of the last 2 towns is in Veracruz). In Puebla: Coxcatlán. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 80% intelligibility of Orizaba Nahuatl, 76% of Southeast Puebla and Canoa, 75% of North Puebla, 48% of Tatoscac.
NAHUATL, NORTH PUEBLA (NORTH PUEBLA AZTEC) [NCJ] 60,000 (1990 census). Naupan, northern Puebla. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Dictionary in progress. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:20%, 1:30%, 2:30%, 3:15%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,000 meters. NT 1979. Bible portions 1962-1968.
NAHUATL, OMETEPEC (OMETEPEC AZTEC) [NHT] 433 (1990 census), 12 towns. Southern Guerrero, Arcelia, Acatepec, Quetzalapa de Azoyú, Rancho de Cuananchinicha, and El Carmen; and some in Oaxaca, Juxtlahuaca District, Cruz Alta and San Vicente Piñas towns; and Putla District, Concepción Guerrero town. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Intelligibility testing in Quetzalapa yielded 77% on Santa Catarina, México (near Texcoco) and 70% on Atliaca, Guerrero. Speakers use Spanish as second language. May be 3 languages. Survey needed.
NAHUATL, ORIZABA (ORIZABA AZTEC, NÁHUATL DE LA SIERRA DE ZONGOLICA) [NLV] 120,000 (1991 SIL). Veracruz, Orizaba area. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 79% intelligibility with closest Nahuatl (Morelos). Bible portions 1995. Work in progress.
NAHUATL, SANTA MARÍA LA ALTA (SANTA MARÍA NAHUATL) [NHZ] 2,000 to 3,000 speakers, including at least 9 monolinguals (1992 SIL). Puebla, Santa María la Alta, Atenayuca. A pocket northwest of Tehuacán, off the Puebla-Tehuacán highway. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 60% intelligibility of Pómaro (Michoacán), 53% of Huatlatlauca, Puebla; 50% of Zautla (Highland Puebla), Chilac (Southeastern Puebla); 40% of Zongolica (Orizaba); 33% of Mecayapan, Veracruz (Isthmus); 30% of Canoa, Puebla. Reported to be bilingual in Spanish. Survey needed.
NAHUATL, SIERRA DE PUEBLA (SIERRA DE PUEBLA NAHUAT, HIGHLAND PUEBLA NAHUATL, SIERRA AZTEC, ZACAPOAXTLA AZTEC, ZACAPOAXTLA MEJICANO) [AZZ] 125,000 (1983). Northeast Puebla. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Typology: VSO, non-tonal, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish, Totonaco are 0:20%, 1:30%, 2:30%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,000 to 1,500 meters. NT 1979. Bible portions 1946-1962.
NAHUATL, SOUTHEAST PUEBLA (TEHUACÁN REGION NAHUATL) [NHS] 130,000 (1991 SIL). Southeast Puebla, Tehuacán region, Chilac and San Sebastián Zinacatepec area. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Approximately 60% intelligibility with Morelos Nahuatl. Typology: non-tonal, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:30%, 1:20%, 2:20%, 3:20%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Mountain slope, plains. Peasant, intensive agriculturalists with irrigation. Bible portions 1992-1995. Work in progress.
NAHUATL, TABASCO (TABASCO AZTEC) [NHC] State of Tabasco, towns of Cupilco and Tecominoacan. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Recently extinct.
NAHUATL, TEMASCALTEPEC (TEMASCALTEPEC AZTEC, ALMOMOLOYA NAHUATL) [NHV] 311 speakers in 4 communities (1990 census). There may be fewer actual speakers. State of Mexico, towns of San Mateo Almomoloa, Santa Ana, La Comunidad, and Potrero de San José, southwest of Toluca. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 53% intelligibility of Coatepec, Guerrero; 45% of Pómaro, Michoacán; 40% of Santa Catarina, Morelos; 10% of Tlaxpanaloya, Puebla. Reported to be bilingual. Survey needed.
NAHUATL, TETELCINGO (TETELCINGO AZTEC) [NHG] 3,500 (1990 census). State of Morelos, town of Tetelcingo. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Distinct from Morelos Nahuatl. Typology: SVO, VSO, VOS (order of frequency), non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:1%, 1:5%, 2:30%, 3:24%, 4:30%, 5:10%. Mountain slope, plains. Agriculture. Altitude: 1,500 to 1,800 meters. NT 1980. Bible portions 1946-1963.
NAHUATL, TLALITZLIPA [NHJ] 108 speakers (1990 census). Near Zacatlán, Puebla, 1 village. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. 77% inherent intelligibility of Tlaxpanaloya (North Puebla), 58%% of Macuilocatl (Western Huasteco Nahuatl), 41% of Tatóscac (Highland Puebla). Nearly extinct.
NAHUATL, TLAMACAZAPA [NUZ] 1 hour from Taxco on a good road. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Aztecan, General Aztec, Aztec. Different from Morelos Nahuatl and Guerrero Nahuatl. 79% inherent intelligibility of Guerrero. Some young children are speakers.
ÓPATA [OPT] 15 speakers: 11 in Distrito Federal, 4 in State of Mexico (1993 Instituto Nacional Indigenista). Sonora: Nacori, Bacahora, Suaqui, Sahuaripa, Arivechi, Onavas, Tecoripa is the traditional area. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Cahita. The last speakers had been reported to have died about 1930. Nearly extinct.
OTOMÍ, EASTERN (SIERRA OTOMÍ, HUEHUETLA OTOMÍ) [OTM] 20,000 including 4,700 monolinguals (1990 census). Vicinity of Huehuetla and San Bartolo, Hidalgo; Tlachichilco and Ixhuatlán, Veracruz. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. 81% intelligibility with Tenango (closest), 50% with Mezquital. Dictionary in progress. 40% literate. Typology: VOS, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:16%, 1:59%, 2:20%, 3:3%, 4:1%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 555 to 770 meters. NT 1974. Bible portions 1951-1968.
OTOMÍ, MEZQUITAL (OTOMÍ DEL VALLE DE MEZQUITAL) [OTE] 100,000 (1990 census), including 100 in North Carolina, USA. Mezquital Valley, Hidalgo. Some in Florida, USA. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. Desert, semi-arid. Plains, mountains. Pastoralists: sheep, goats; swidden agriculturalists: maize. Altitude: 5,000 feet. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1970. Bible portions 1951-1991.
OTOMÍ, SOUTHEASTERN (IXTENCO OTOMÍ) [OTA] 736 speakers including 4 monolinguals out of a population of 5,356 (1990 census). Tlaxcala, San Juan Bautista Ixtenco. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. 41% intelligibility of State of Mexico Otomí (closest), 23% of Mezquital, and Eastern Otomí, 22% of Tenango Otomí. Speakers are over 50 years old, and are bilingual in Spanish.
OTOMÍ, STATE OF MEXICO [OTS] 10,000 including 400 monolinguals (1990 census). State of Mexico. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. Dialect: SAN FELIPE SANTIAGO OTOMÍ. 73% intelligibility with Mezquital Otomí (closest), lower in outlying areas. Typology: VOS, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish for Women: 0:0%, 1:20%, 2:40%, 3:40%, 4:0%, 5:0%; Men: 0:0%, 1:20%, 2:30%, 3:50%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain mesa. Peasant agriculturalists: maize. Altitude: 2,500 to 2,600 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1975. Bible portions 1957-1961.
OTOMÍ, TEMOAYA [OTT] 37,000 including 850 monolinguals (1990 census). 10% of monolinguals in Temoaya are under 10 years old. State of Mexico. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. Typology: VOS, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish for Women: 0:0%, 1:0%, 2:20%, 3:40%, 4:30%, 5:10%; Men: 0:0%, 1:0%, 2:5%, 3:15%, 4:40%, 5:40%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists, laborers in city (men). Altitude: 2,700 to 2,850 meters. Christian. Bible portions. Work in progress.
OTOMÍ, TENANGO [OTN] 10,000 (1990 census). San Nicolás, Hidalgo, and Puebla. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. 53% intelligibility with Eastern Otomí (closest). NT 1975. Bible portions 1959-1967.
OTOMÍ, TEXCATEPEC (NORTHEASTERN OTOMÍ) [OTX] 12,000 including 3,000 monolinguals (1990 census). Northwestern Veracruz, Texcatepec Municipio: Texcatepec, Ayotuxtla, Zontecomatlán Municipio: Hueytepec, Amajac, Tzicatlán. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. 70% to 79% intelligibility of Eastern Otomí, 57% of Ixmiquilpan, 44% of Tolimán, 40% of San Felipe, 20% of Ixtenco. Limited bilingualism. Pastoralists: sheep. Altitude: 6,000 feet. Christian, traditional religion.
OTOMÍ, TILAPA [OTL] 400 speakers, mainly over 50 years old (1990 census). Santiago Tilapa town between Mexico, D. F. and Toluca, State of Mexico. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. Only elderly speakers left. Linguistic island. Nearly extinct.
OTOMÍ, WESTERN (QUERETARO OTOMÍ, NORTHWESTERN OTOMÍ) [OTQ] 33,000 (1990 census). Queretaro, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, State of México, Amealco Municipio: towns of San Ildefonso, Santiago Mexquititlán; Acambay Municipio; Tolimán Municipio. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Otomian, Otomi. 78% intelligibility with Mezquital (closest), lower in outlying areas. Semi-arid, savannah. Mountain mesa. Pastoralists: sheep, goats, cattle; agriculturalists: maize. Altitude: 7,000 feet. Traditional religion, Christian. Work in progress.
PAIPAI (AKWA'ALA) [PPI] 300 (1990 census). Santa Catarina (about 300 people), and some near Valle de la Trinidad in Los Pocitos, Estado Valle de la Trinidad (1 or 2 houses), and Rancho Aguascalientes or La Palmita (2 to 3 families), Ensenada, Baja California Norte, south of the Diegueño. Hokan, Esselen-Yuman, Yuman, Pai. Only a few speakers use Paipai in the home. A Kiliwi speaker sample understood Paipai at 87%, but Paipai speakers understood no Kiliwi. Mountain slope. Survey needed.
PAME, CENTRAL (SANTA MARÍA ACAPULCO PAME, CHICHIMECA-PAME CENTRAL) [PBS] 4,350 (1990 census). San Luis Potosí. Oto-Manguean, Otopamean, Pamean. Typology: SVO, pitch-accent, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:70%, 2:15%, 3:5%, 4:.1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope, deep valleys, limestone. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 600 to 1,200 meters. Bible portions 1953-1981. Work in progress.
PIMA BAJO, CHIHUAHUA (LOWER PIMAN) [PMB] 1,000 or more (1989 D. Saxton). Chihuahua-Sonoran border area, around Yepachic. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman. Not intelligible with Pima Bajo of Sonora. Limited bilingualism. Scattered. Agriculturalists: maize. Survey needed.
PIMA BAJO, SONORA (NEBOME, MOUNTAIN PIMA, LOWER PIMAN) [PIA] 1,000 or more (1989 D. Saxton SIL). Central Sonora-Chihuahua border. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman. Scattered. Somewhat bilingual. 85% lexical similarity with Pima (Papago-Pima) of USA and Northern Tepehuan. Sonora and Chihuahua Pima Bajo are not inherently intelligible. Agriculturalists: maize, lumber mill workers. Bible portions 1994. Work in progress.
PLAUTDIETSCH (LOW GERMAN, MENNONITE GERMAN) [GRN] 70,000 in Mexico (1993); 306,000 in all countries. Chihuahua (Cuauhtemoc, Virginias, Buenos Aires, Capulín), Durango (Nuevo Ideal, Canatlán), Campeche (Chavez, Progreso, Yalnon), Zacatecas (La Honda, La Batea). Also in Canada, USA, Belize, Bolivia, Paraguay, other Latin American countries, Russia, Kazakhstan, Germany. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, Low. Not intelligible with other Low German languages or Standard German. 22% speak Standard German as second language, 5% speak English, 30% speak Spanish, 5% speak Russian as second language. 60% literate. Intensive agriculturalists, cheese production. Christian. NT 1987. Bible portions 1984-1986.
POPOLOCA, COYOTEPEC [PBF] 500 speakers out of a town of about 7,000 (1990 census). Fluent speakers are fewer. State of Puebla, west of Tehuacán city, east of Ahuatempan, towns of Coyotepec and San Mateo (2 miles from Coyotepec). Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. Dialects: SAN VICENTE COYOTEPEC POPOLOCA, SAN MATEO ZOYAMAZALCO POPOLOCA. 41% intelligibility of Otlaltepec, 23% of Atzingo, 15% of Tlacoyalco Northern Popoloca. Speakers use Spanish as second language. San Mateo may be intelligible with Coyotepec, San Felipe, or may be a separate language. Survey needed.
POPOLOCA, LOS REYES MEZONTLA (METZONTLA POPOLOCA, SOUTHERN POPOLOCA) [PBE] 2,000 (1993 SIL). There may be fewer fluent speakers. State of Puebla, 1 town. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. 52% intelligibility with Atzingo Popoloca, 35% on Tlacoyalco (Northern Popoloca, 11% on Otlaltepec. Bilingualism testing needed. Grammar. Survey needed.
POPOLOCA, SAN FELIPE OTLALTEPEC (WESTERN POPOLOCA, POPOLOCA PONIENTE) [POW] 6,000 (1993 SIL). State of Puebla, 3 towns: San Felipe Otlaltepec (5,000), Santa María Nativitas (500), Huejonapan (500). Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. Speakers use Spanish as second language. 25% to 50% literate. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, long words, affixes. Desert, deciduous forest. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,000 meters. Bible portions 1955-1980. Work in progress.
POPOLOCA, SAN JUAN ATZINGO (ATZINGO POPOLOCA, EASTERN POPOLOCA) [POE] 5,000 (1991 SIL). San Juan Atzingo, Puebla: 1 town. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. 76% intelligibility of Metzontla Popoloca (closest), 26% of San Felipe Popoloca. Most men speak elementary Spanish as second language. Many women who cannot speak Spanish speak Nahuatl for trading in San Gabriel Chilac. Onyx and sugar cane workers have team leaders who speak Spanish for them. 30% literate. Dictionary. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:50%, 2:0%, 3:0%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists (goats), onyx miners, potters. Altitude: 1,538 meters. NT 1982. Bible portions 1976-1995.
POPOLOCA, SAN LUÍS TEMALACAYUCA (TEMALACAYUCA POPOLOCA) [PPS] 4,729 (1994 SIL). San Luís Temalacayuca, Puebla. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. San Luís has 84% intelligibility of San Marcos, 22% of Atzingo, 8% of Otlaltepec. Popoloca is the language of all adults. Used in the stores. All children speak Popoloca, but know a little Spanish when they enter school. Kindergarten, primary, and secondary schools. Most people speak limited Spanish. Electricity, telephone, regular transportation to Tehuacán. Many homes have good drinking water. About 25% of the men work part of the year in the D.F. or USA. Desert, plains. Mountain mesa. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 6,000 feet.
POPOLOCA, SAN MARCOS TLACOYALCO [PLS] 5,000 (1993 SIL). San Marcos Tlacoyalco, Puebla. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. San Luis has 90% intelligibility of San Marcos. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:30%, 2:60%, 3:5%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain mesa. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 7,000 feet. NT 1983. Bible portions 1976.
POPOLOCA, SANTA INÉS AHUATEMPAN (AHUATEMPAN POPOLOCA) [PCA] 7,500 including 6,000 in Ahuatempan (town of10,000 to 15,000), 1,500 in Almolonga (1993 SIL). State of Puebla, west of Coyotepec and Tehuacán city, 2 towns. Oto-Manguean, Popolocan, Chocho-Popolocan, Popolocan. Dialects: AHUATEMPAN, TODOS SANTOS ALMOLONGA. 75% intelligibility of San Felipe Popoloca (closest). Some children do not speak Popoloca. 55% literate. Agriculturalists: maize, black beans, avocados, oranges, lemons, papaya. Traditional religion, Christian. Bible portions 1994. Work in progress.
POPOLUCA, OLUTA [PLO] 102 speakers out of a population of 10,000 (1990 census). Southeastern Veracruz, Oluta, inland, west of Texistepec. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Veracruz Mixe. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Nearly all are over 50 years old. Dictionary.
POPOLUCA, SAYULA [POS] 4,000 including 14 monolinguals (1990 census). Sayula, Veracruz. Mixe-Zoque, Mixe, Veracruz Mixe. Dictionary. Typology: SOV, VOS, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:10%, 2:10%, 3:15%, 4:55%, 5:5%. Coastal. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 10 to 600 meters. NT 1969. Bible portions 1957-1964.
POPOLUCA, SIERRA (HIGHLAND POPOLUCA) [POI] 30,000 (1991 SIL). Soteapan, Veracruz. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Veracruz Zoque. Closer to Zoque than to Mixe. Typology: VOS, non-tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:45%, 2:20%, 3:20%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Mountain slope, coastal. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 10 to 600 meters. NT 1977. Bible portions 1952-1965.
POPOLUCA, TEXISTEPEC [POQ] 427 speakers out of a population of 15,779 (1990 census). Southeastern Veracruz, Texistepec, east of Oluta. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Veracruz Zoque. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish and over 50 years old. Nearly extinct.
PURÉPECHA (TARASCO, TARASCAN) [TSZ] 120,000 (1990 census). Michoacán. Language Isolate. NT 1969. Bible portions 1946-1964.
ROMANI, VLACH [RMY] 5,000 in Mexico (1993); several hundred thousand in Latin America (1984 Ian Hancock); 1,500,000 in all countries (1986 estimate). Reported to be 53,000 Gypsies in Mexico (1993 Johnstone). Mexico City and Guadalajara. Also in Romania, Albania, Greece, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Norway, France, Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Hungary, England, USA, Brazil, Argentina, Colombia. Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Vlax. A Gypsy language. May include other varieties of Romani. Christian. NT 1984-1986. Bible portions 1930-1986.
SERI [SEI] 700 (1992 M. Moser SIL). The population was 215 in 1951. Sonora coast, 2 villages. Hokan, Salinan-Seri. Typology: SOV, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:6%, 1:70%, 2:10%, 3:10%, 4:3%, 5:1%. Coastal. Fishermen, hunter-gatherers (traditionally), craftsmen (ironwood carvings, basketry, necklaces). Altitude: 0 meters. NT 1982. Bible portions 1966-1968.
SPANISH (ESPAÑOL, CASTELLANO) [SPN] 86,211,000 first language speakers in Mexico (1995), 88% of the population: 266,000,000 in all countries (1987 Time). Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Ibero-Romance, North, Central. National language. Bible 1553-1979. NT 1543-1986. Bible portions 1514-1985.
TACANECO (TACANA MAM, MAMÉ) [MTZ] 1,200 in Mexico (1990 census); 20,000 in Guatemala (1991 SIL); 21,200 total. Buenos Aires, hills above Motozintla, and Mazapa, eastern Chiapas. Mayan, Quichean-Mamean, Greater Mamean, Mamean. Speakers are highly bilingual in Spanish in Mexico. Survey needed.
TARAHUMARA BAJA (WESTERN TARAHUMARA, RALÁMULI DE LA TARAHUMARA BAJA, ROCOROIBO TARAHUMARA) [TAC] 15,000 (1990 census). Chihuahua. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tarahumaran, Tarahumara. Typology: non-tonal, SOV, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:15%, 2:30%, 3:30%, 4:15%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Semi-nomadic pastoralists, swidden or peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 600 to 3,000 meters. Bible portions 1975-1985. Work in progress.
TARAHUMARA, CENTRAL (SAMACHIQUE TARAHUMARA) [TAR] 50,000 (1993 SIL). Southwestern Chihuahua. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tarahumaran, Tarahumara. 20% literate. NT 1972. Bible portions 1947-1963.
TARAHUMARA, NORTHERN (ARISEACHI TARAHUMARA) [THH] 300 or fewer speakers out of a population of 1,500 (1993 SIL). Chihuahua, towns of Santa Rosa Ariseachi, Agua Caliente Ariseachi, Bilaguchi, Tomochi, La Nopalera. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tarahumaran, Tarahumara. 45% intelligibility of Central Tarahumara, 25% of Tarahumara Baja. Speakers are all over 40 years old and few use it daily. They are bilingual in Spanish. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: maize, beans, squash, potatoes; pastoralists: goats, sheep, cattle; hunters.
TARAHUMARA, SOUTHEASTERN [TCU] Chinatú, Chihuahua. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tarahumaran, Tarahumara. Dialect: CHINATÚ TARAHUMARA.
TARAHUMARA, SOUTHWESTERN [TWR] 100 or fewer (1983 D. Burgess). Chihuahua, town of Tubare. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tarahumaran, Tarahumara. May be the original town of the extinct Tubar language. Typology: non-tonal. Scrub forest. Mountain slope (canyon). Hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,200 to 5,000 feet. Survey needed.
TECTITECO (TECO, TECTITÁN MAM) [TTC] 1,000 or more in Mexico; 2,600 in Guatemala (1990 SIL); 3,600 total or more. Amatenango de la Frontera and Mazapa de Madero, Chiapas. Mayan, Quichean-Mamean, Greater Mamean, Mamean. Closely related to Mam. The Mexican group is highly bilingual in Spanish, but not the Guatemalan group. Work in progress.
TEPECANO [TEP] Northwestern Jalisco near Bolaños. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman, Southern Tepehuan. No speakers found on SIL survey, 1972. Extinct.
TEPEHUAN, NORTHERN [NTP] 8,000 (1990 census). Southern Chihuahua, Baborigame area. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman. Related to Pima Bajo, Papago, Southern Tepehuan. 35% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:15%, 1:15%, 2:20%, 3:35%, 4:10%, 5:5%. Mountain mesa, slope, canyons. Pastoralists. Altitude: 700 to 4,000 meters. NT 1982. Bible portions 1962.
TEPEHUAN, SOUTHEASTERN [STP] 8,000 to 9,000 (1990 census). Southern Durango. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman, Southern Tepehuan. 78% intelligibility with Southwestern Tepehuan. 25% literate. Typology: VSO, VOS, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:30%, 2:15%, 3:4%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,500 to 3,000 meters. Bible portions 1991. Work in progress.
TEPEHUAN, SOUTHWESTERN [TLA] 6,000 to 8,000 (1990 census). Southwestern Durango. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tepiman, Southern Tepehuan. 55% intelligibility with Southeastern Tepehuan. Limited bilingualism in Spanish. Swidden agriculturalists: maize, beans, squash; pastoralists. Traditional religion. Work in progress.
TEPEHUA, HUEHUETLA (HIDALGO TEPEHUA) [TEE] 3,000 (1982 SIL). Northeastern Hidalgo, Huehuetla, and half the town of Mecapalapa in Puebla. Totonacan, Tepehua. 70% intelligibility with Pisa Flores (closest). Typology: SVO, non-tonal, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:37%, 2:25%, 3:10%, 4:10%, 5:8%. Mountain slope. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 meters. NT 1976. Bible portions 1955-1968.
TEPEHUA, PISA FLORES [TPP] 4,000 (1990 census). Veracruz, towns of Pisa Flores, Ixhuatlán de Madero, and one other town. Not in Puebla. Totonacan, Tepehua. 59% intelligibility with Huehuetla (closest). Limited bilingualism in Spanish. Work in progress.
TEPEHUA, TLACHICHILCO [TPT] 3,000 (1990 SIL). Tlachichilco, Veracruz. Totonacan, Tepehua. 37% intelligibility with Pisa Flores (closest). 10% literate. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:20%, 2:50%, 3:20%, 4:4%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 500 to 900 meters. Bible portions 1985-1993. Work in progress.
TLAPANECO, ACATEPEC (WESTERN TLAPANEC) [TPX] 33,000, including over 10,000 monolinguals (1994 SIL). Acatepec, Guerrero, Zapotitlán Tablas Municipio: Huitzapula, Ayotoxtla, Excalerilla, Huiztlatzala; Acatepec Municipio: Acatepec, Apetzuca, Tenamazapa, Barranca Pobre, Mezcalapa, Metlapilapa, Tres Cruces, El Salto, Zochitepec, Caxitepec; Platanillo municipio: Nanzintla, Teocuitlapa. Subtiaba-Tlapanec. Dialects: ACATEPEC, ZAPOTITLÁN TABLAS, PLATANILLO. 83% intelligibility of Malinaltepec, 79% of Tlacoapa. Primary schools in most villages, secondary schools in major centers. Many bilingual school teachers from Malinaltepec. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 5,000 to 6,000 feet.
TLAPANECO, AZOYÚ [TPC] 682 speakers. 17,000 in the Municipio including Spanish-speaking mestizos (1990 census). No monolinguals. However, there are reports of 1,000 to 10,000 speakers. East and a little south of Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Azoyú, Maxnadi, Toxnene, Zapotitlán del Puente, San Isidro del Puente, El Carrizo. Subtiaba-Tlapanec. 50% intelligible with Malinaltepec. Reported to be bilingual in Spanish. Survey needed.
TLAPANECO, MALINALTEPEC (MEPHÁA, EASTERN TLAPANECO, MALINALTEPEC TLAPANEC) [TLL] 33,000 speakers, including 6,000 monolinguals (1994 M. Weathers SIL). East and a little south of Chilpancingo, Guerrero. Subtiaba-Tlapanec. Dialects: TLACOAPA, MALINALTEPEC (HUIZAPULA), ZILACAYOTITLÁN. Tlacoapa Tlapaneco speakers can understand Malinaltepec, but the reverse is not true. Linguistically closest to Subtiaba of Nicaragua (extinct). It may be distantly related to Tol of Honduras. NT 1975. Bible portions 1953-1994. Work in progress.
TOJOLABAL (CHAÑABAL, COMITECO) [TOJ] 36,000 including 7,700 monolinguals (1990 census). Chiapas, Margaritas and Altamirano. Mayan, Kanjobalan-Chujean, Chujean. NT 1972. Bible portions 1952-1967.
TOTONACA, COYUTLA [TOC] 30,000 to 40,000 (1982 SIL). Speakers of all Totonac languages: 196,003 (1980 census). Puebla, foot of the mountains north of the 'Sierra Totonaca' and the Olintla River. Totonacan, Totonac. Linguistically closest to Highland Totonaco with many similarities to Papantla. NT 1987. Bible portions 1979.
TOTONACA, FILOMENO MATA-COAHUITLÁN (SANTO DOMINGO TOTONACO) [TLP] 10,000 to 12,000 (1982 SIL). Veracruz, highlands, in the middle of the main highlands dialect. Totonacan, Totonac. 93% intelligibility with Nonacatlán. Linguistically between Highland and Northern Totonaca. Speakers are bilingual in Coyutla Totonaca.
TOTONACA, NORTHERN (VILLA JUÁREZ TOTONACA) [TOO] 10,000 or more (1982 SIL). Northeastern Puebla, Xicotepec de Juarez, and Veracruz; 30 towns. Totonacan, Totonac. Dialect: ZIHUATEUTLA. 87% intelligibility with Ozumatlán (closest). 60% literate. Typology: SVO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:3%, 1:7%, 2:35%, 3:40%, 4:10%, 5:5%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists: coffee. Altitude: 215 to 1,230 meters. NT 1978. Bible portions 1957-1965.
TOTONACA, OZUMATLÁN [TQT] 4,000 (1990 census). Puebla, Ozumatlán, Tepetzintla, Tlapehuala, San Agustín. Totonacan, Totonac. 79% intelligibility of Highland Totonaca, 75% of Northern Totonaca, 67% of Zihuateutla, Puebla, 43% of Papantla. Speakers are not bilingual in Spanish. Agriculturalists: maize, squash, chicken, pigs. Altitude: 5,000 feet.
TOTONACA, PAPANTLA (LOWLAND TOTONACO) [TOP] 80,000 (1982 SIL). Veracruz. Totonacan, Totonac. 40% intelligibility with Highland Totonaca (closest). Dictionary. Typology: VSO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:10%, 2:50%, 3:15%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Mountain slope, coastal, interfluvial. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 0 to 300 meters. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1979. Bible portions 1973-1990.
TOTONACA, PATLA (PATLA-CHICONTLA TOTONACA) [TOT] 6,000 (1990 census). Northeastern Puebla, Patla, Chicontla, Tecpatlán, and 2 other villages. Totonacan, Totonac. It is difficult for speakers to read Northern Totonaca materials. 30% literate. NT in press (1996). Bible portions 1988-1995.
TOTONACA, SIERRA (HIGHLAND TOTONACA) [TOS] 120,000 (1982 SIL). Zacatlán, Puebla area and Veracruz. Totonacan, Totonac. Dictionary. Typology: VSO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:50%, 2:24%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:1%. Mountain slope, interfluvial. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 to 2,500 meters. NT 1959. Bible portions 1946-1956.
TOTONACA, YECUATLA [TLC] 500 (1994 SIL). Near southern coast, Veracruz, towns of Yecuatla (293 speakers out of 11,541 population) and Misantla (126 speakers out of 50,000 population). Totonacan, Totonac. Speakers are all over 50 years old and bilingual in Spanish. Survey needed.
TRIQUE, SAN ANDRÉS CHICAHUAXTLA [TRS] 6,000 (1982). Tlaxiaco area, Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Trique. Dialect: LAGUNA. 74% intelligibility with Copala. 100% lexical similarity with Laguna, 87% with Itunyoso, 78% with Sabana. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:15%, 1:40%, 2:20%, 3:14%, 4:10%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,200 to 2,500 meters. NT 1968. Bible portions 1951-1960.
TRIQUE, SAN JUAN COPALA (COPALA TRIQUE, TRIQUI) [TRC] 15,000 (1990 census). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Trique. 56% intelligibility with Chicahuaxtla. 20% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:40%, 1:30%, 2:15%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,000 to 2,200 meters. NT 1988. Bible portions 1970.
TRIQUE, SAN MARTÍN ITUNYOSO [TRQ] 2,000 (1983). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Mixtecan, Trique. 87% lexical similarity with Laguna, Chicahuaxtla; 84% with Sabana, San Miguel. Typology: tonal, VSO, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:40%, 2:4%, 3:3%, 4:2%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. NT in press (1996).
TUBAR (TUBARE) [TBU] There may have been as many as 100 in 1970. Chihuahua, where the Rio San Ignacio (Verde) and Rio Urique meet in the southwest near the Sinaloa and Sonora borders. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Tubar. Extinct.
TZELTAL, BACHAJÓN (LOWLAND TZELTAL) [TZB] 100,000 (1993 SIL). Speakers of all Tzeltal varieties: 215,145 (1980 census). East central Chiapas. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Dialects: AMATENANGO DEL VALLE, OCOZINGO. NT 1964. Bible portions 1959-1963.
TZELTAL, HIGHLAND (OXCHUC TZELTAL) [TZH] 200,000 (1993 SIL). East central Chiapas, Oxchuc area. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Typology: VOS. Bible 1993. NT 1956-1981. Bible portions 1947-1967.
TZOTZIL, CHAMULA (CHAMULA) [TZC] 130,000 (1990 census). Speakers of all Tzotzil languages: 265,000 (1990 census). West central Chiapas. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Dialects: SAN JUAN CHAMULA, HUITIUPAN, SIMOJOVEL, SAN JUAN DEL BOSQUE, SAN CRISTOBAL LAS CASAS, BOCHIL, PUEBLO NUEVO SOLISTAHUACAN, OCOZOCOAUTLA, IXTAPA (NIBAK), JITOTOL, TEOPISCA, AMATAN, ISHUATAN. NT 1979-1988. Bible portions 1965.
TZOTZIL, CH'ENALHÓ (CHENALÓ) [TZE] 35,000 (1990 census). Chenalho region, Chiapas. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Dialects: SAN PEDRO CHENALHO, SAN PABLO CHALCHIHUITAN, SANTA CATARINA PANTELHO, SAN MIGUEL MITONTIC. Partially intelligible with San Andrés Larrainzar Chamula. Typology: non-tonal, SVO or VOS, short and long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:95%, 1:1%, 2:1%, 3:2%, 4:.5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. NT 1981. Bible portions 1963-1966.
TZOTZIL, HUIXTÁN (HUIXTECO) [TZU] 20,000 (1990 census). Huistán region, Chiapas. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Dialects: HUIXTÁN, ANGEL ALBINO CORZO, LA CONCORDIA, VILLA CORZO. Typology: SVO, VOS, non-tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:98%, 1:.5%, 2:.5%, 3:.5%, 4:.3%, 5:.2%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 2,185 meters. NT 1975-1995. Bible portions 1959-1995.
TZOTZIL, SAN ANDRÉS LARRAINZAR [TZS] 50,000 (1990 census). West central Chiapas. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Pine forest. Mountain slope, plains. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,500 to 3,000 meters. NT 1983. Bible portions 1963-1965.
TZOTZIL, VENUSTIANO CARRANZA (SAN BARTOLOMÉ VENUSTIANO CARRANZA TZOTZIL) [TZO] 4,226 speakers including 58 monolinguals (1990 census). 60,000 in the ethnic group. Central Chiapas, Venustiano Carranza Municipio, towns of Venustiano Carranza, El Puerto, and El Paraiso de Grijalva. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. 66% intelligibility of Chenalhó Tzotzil, 65% of Zinacantán, 57% of Chamula, 56% of Huixtán. Spanish proficiency is limited. Primary schools and a secondary school. Telephone, buses, taxis. Agriculturalists: maize, beans; fishermen. Altitude: 1,500 feet.
TZOTZIL, ZINACANTECO [TZZ] 25,000 (1990 census). West central Chiapas. Mayan, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Tzeltalan. Typology: non-tonal, SVO or VOS, short and long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:94%, 1:3%, 2:2%, 3:1%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Pastoralists, swidden agriculturalists. NT 1987. Bible portions 1951-1986.
YAQUI [YAQ] 16,000 in Mexico (1993 SIL); 406 in Arizona including 2 monolinguals; 16,400 total. Sonora. Uto-Aztecan, Southern Uto-Aztecan, Sonoran, Cahita. Partially intelligible with Mayo. Grammar and dictionary in progress. 5% to 10% literate. Typology: SOV, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish, English are 0:0%, 1:0%, 2:1%, 3:55%, 4:35%, 5:4%. Coastal, riverine. Pastoralists, hunters, fishermen, agriculture. Altitude: 0 to 100 meters. NT 1977. Bible portions 1959-1966.
ZAPOTECO, ALBARRADAS (ALBARRADAS ZAPOTEC) [ZAS] 5,500 including 1,500 to 2,000 in Santo Domingo (1993 SIL). All Zapotec languages: 422,937 (1980 census). Central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: SANTA MARÍA ALBARRADAS, SANTO DOMINGO ALBARRADAS, SAN MIGUEL ALBARRADAS. 39% intelligibility with Mitla (closest). Santa Catarina Albarradas may need separate literature. Since 1979 speakers in Santo Domingo have shown increasing preference for Zapoteco, but in Santa María it is reported to be diminishing in use. Speakers switch to Spanish for communication with Mitla Zapoteco speakers. Some immigrant Mixe have learned the local Zapoteco, but few Zapoteco have learned Mixe. Spanish is generally used between them and in mixed marriages. 80% literate. Typology: tonal, VSO, varying word length, clitics and affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:3%, 1:17%, 2:40%, 3:30%, 4:9%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 4,000 to 6,000 feet. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, ALOAPAN (ALOAPAM ZAPOTEC) [ZAQ] Northern Oaxaca, San Miguel Aloapan. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Different from Teococuilco Zapoteco. People are not bilingual in Spanish. Typology: VSO, tonal, affixes, clitics. Pine forest. Sedentary pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, AYOQUESCO (WESTERN EJUTLA ZAPOTECO, SANTA MARÍA AYOQUESCO ZAPOTEC) [ZAF] 876 speakers, including 9 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, Santa María Ayoquesco, Santa Cruz Nexila, San Andrés Zabache, and San Martín Lachila. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Closest to Western Ocotlán Zapoteco (23% intelligibility). In Santa Cruz Nexila Zapoteco is spoken by all ages. They have pride in their language. Speakers use Spanish as second language.
ZAPOTECO, CENTRAL MIAHUATLÁN [ZAM] 80,000 (1982 SIL). South central Oaxaca, Cuixtla. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dictionary. Typology: SVO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:5%, 2:30%, 3:4%, 4:1%, 5:50%. Mountain slope. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,800 meters. NT 1971. Bible portions 1956-1968.
ZAPOTECO, CENTRAL VILLA ALTA (TABAA ZAPOTECO) [ZAT] 2,000 (1992 SIL). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:30%, 2:13%, 3:5%, 4:2%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 300 to 800 meters. NT 1981. Bible portions 1979.
ZAPOTECO, CHOAPAN (CHOAPAM ZAPOTEC) [ZPC] 24,000 (1991 SIL). North central Oaxaca and Veracruz. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: COMALTEPEC. 60% intelligibility with Zoogocho (closest). Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:25%, 2:30%, 3:20%, 4:12%, 5:3%. Mountain slope. Swidden agriculturalists. Altitude: 840 meters. NT 1986. Bible portions 1965.
ZAPOTECO, COATECAS ALTAS [ZAP] 5,000 (1993 SIL) including 100 monolinguals (1990 census). Ejutla, Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Closest to San Gregorio Ozolotepec (83% intelligibility) and Miahuatlan (Cuitla). 20% to 30% literate. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, EASTERN MIAHUATLÁN (SAN JUAN MIXTEPEC ZAPOTECO, MIXTEPEC ZAPOTECO) [ZPM] 7,000 (1991 SIL). Southern Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 80% intelligibility with Santiago Lapaguía (closest). A separate language from San Agustín Mixtepec Zapotec. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:40%, 1:15%, 2:30%, 3:15%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists, merchants. Bible portions 1980-1982. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, EASTERN POCHUTLA (XADANI ZAPOTEC) [ZAX] 338 speakers, 122 over 50 years old, 90 between 35 and 50; 1 monolingual (1990 census). Oaxaca, Pochutla District, San Miguel del Puerto Municipio, Santa María Xadani, 16 towns or villages. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Coastal. Survey needed.
ZAPOTECO, EASTERN SOLA DE VEGA (LACHIXÍO ZAPOTECO) [ZPL] 6,500 (1990 census). Western Oaxaca, eastern Sola de Vega aand southwestern Zimatlán, towns of Santa María Lachixío, San Vicente Lachixío, San Miguel Mixtepec, San Mateo Mixtepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: EASTERN SOLA DE VEGA, SOUTHWESTERN ZIMATLÁN. Southwestern Zimatlán dialect speakers ha may need separate literature. 73% intelligibility with San Pedro el Alto (closest). 60% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50-60%, 1:20-30%, 2:5-15%, 3:3-8%, 4:2-5%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,846 to 2,460 meters. Bible portions 1984-1989. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, EASTERN TLACOLULA (SAN PEDRO QUIATONI ZAPOTECO) [ZPF] 12,000 to 15,000 (1993 SIL). Central Oaxaca, San Pedro Quiatoni, Salinas, Union Juarez, and nearby settlements. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 76% intelligibility with Mitla (Central Tlacolula); closest. 75% literate. Traditional religion. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, ISTHMUS [ZAI] 85,000 (1990 census). Tehuantepec and Juchitán, Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 18% intelligibility of Santa María Petapa (closest). Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:45%, 2:25%, 3:10%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Coastal. Fishermen, peasant agriculturalists, merchants. Altitude: 0 meters. NT 1972. Bible portions 1912-1958.
ZAPOTECO, MITLA (EAST CENTRAL TLACOLULA ZAPOTECO, EAST VALLEY ZAPOTECO) [ZAW] 19,500 (1983 SIL), including 4,500 in Matatlán (1983 SIL). Mitla Valley, Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: SANTIAGO MATATLÁN ZAPOTEC (MATATLÁN ZAPOTEC). 75% intelligibility with Guelavia (closest). 80% to 90% literate. Typology: tonal, SVO or VSO, short and long words, clitics and affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:5%, 1:30%, 2:30%, 3:15%, 4:15%, 5:5%. Mountain slope, plains. Pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists, craftsmen, merchants. Altitude: 1,500 meters. NT 1981. Bible portions 1954-1986.
ZAPOTECO, NORTH CENTRAL ZIMATLÁN (ASUNCIÓN MIXTEPEC ZAPOTECO) [ZOO] 100 or fewer speakers out of a population of 2,476 (1990 census). Southwest of Oaxaca City in central Oaxaca, Asunción Mixtepec and another town. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 22% intelligibility of Ayoquesco (closest), and 3% of San Pedro el Alto. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Nearly extinct.
ZAPOTECO, NORTHEASTERN MIAHUATLÁN (SAN FRANCISCO LOGUECHE ZAPOTECO, SAN CRISTOBAL AMATLÁN ZAPOTECO, AMATLÁN ZAPOTECO) [ZPO] 5,000 to 6,000 (1993 SIL). Southern Oaxaca, east of Miahuatlán, 3 towns. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Closest to Loxicha. 35% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:60%, 1:20%, 2:15%, 3:4%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,690 meters. Bible portions 1992-1995. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, NORTHEASTERN YAUTEPEC (QUIAVICUZAS ZAPOTEC, SAN JUAN LACHIXILA ZAPOTEC) [ZPJ] 4,000 including 180 monolinguals (1990 census). 40 monolinguals are between ages 5 to 9. Oaxaca, northeast corner of Yautepec District, 45 km. northeast of Pan American highway, 75 km. east of Mitla. San Carlos Yautepec Municipio: Santiago Quiavicuzas; Nejapa de Madero Municipio: San Juan Lachixila, Corral de Piedra, Carrizal; Guevea de Humboldt Municipio: Guadalupe Guevea. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 59% intelligibility of Lachiguiri (Northwestern Tehuantepec; closest). Speakers use Spanish as second language. Primary schools. Airstrip. Agriculturalists. Altitude: 3,500 to 5,000 feet.
ZAPOTECO, NORTHERN ISTHMUS (GUEVEA DE HUMBOLT ZAPOTECO) [ZPG] 7,000 (1977 SIL). Eastern Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 49% intelligibility with Lachiguiri (Northwestern Tehuantepec; closest). 20% to 30% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, clitics, affixes. Altitude: 1,760 to 2,500 feet. Bible portions 1982. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, NORTHERN VILLA ALTA (RINCÓN ZAPOTECO, YAGALLO ZAPOTECO) [ZAR] 23,000 to 27,000 (1990 census). Northern Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 64% intelligibility with Choapan (closest). Temaxcalapan may not be part of this language. Typology: VOS, non-tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:50%, 1:35%, 2:10%, 3:3%, 4:2%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 400 to 1,000 meters. NT 1971. Bible portions 1962-1968.
ZAPOTECO, NORTHWESTERN POCHUTLA (SAN BALTÁZAR LOXICHA ZAPOTECO, LOXICHA ZAPOTEC) [ZPX] 1,500 including 19 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, 115 km. south of Oaxaca city. San Baltázar Loxicha and Santa Catarina Loxicha. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 71% intelligibility with Santa María Coatlán (closest), 63% with Cuixtla (Central Miahuatlán), 46.5% with San Vicente Coatlán. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Difficult terrain and access. Damp climate. Pre-coastal mountains. Altitude: 4,000 feet.
ZAPOTECO, NORTHWESTERN TEHUANTEPEC (SANTIAGO LACHIGUIRI ZAPOTECO, LACHIGUIRI ZAPOTEC) [ZPA] 5,000 (1977 SIL). Oaxaca, north of Isthmus, 15 km. southwest of Guevea de Humboldt. Includes towns in neighboring municipios, such as Santa María Totolapilla, Jalapa, and Magdalena. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 62% intelligibility in Lachixila (Northeastern Yautepec) and Juchitán (Isthmus; closest). Although speakers are fairly bilingual in Spanish, there is a strong preference for Zapoteco. Temperate climate, abundant water and vegetation. Mountains. Altitude: 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, OZOLOTEPEC [ZAO] 6,500 (1990 census); including the town of San Marcial (1,400 in 1973). Oaxaca, southeastern Miahuatlán, east side of highway 175, about half way between Miahuatlán and coast. The majority of towns with 'Ozolotepec' in the name are included. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: SAN MARCIAL OZOLOTEPEC ZAPOTECO, SAN GREGORIO OZOLOTEPEC ZAPOTECO. 87% intelligibility with Cuixtla (Central Miahuatlán), 84% with Candelaria Loxicha (Northeastern Pochutla). Cuixtla literature not acceptable here. People in the towns of San Marcial, San Gregorio, San Esteban, and Santo Domingo are monolingual. Altitude: 6,000 feet. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, SAN AGUSTÍN MIXTEPEC [ZTM] 59 speakers (1994 SIL). Oaxaca, Miahuatlán, town of San Agustín Mixtepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. A separate language from Eastern Miahuatlán Zapotec. Nearly extinct.
ZAPOTECO, SAN BALTAZAR CHICHICAPAN (CHICHICAPAN ZAPOTECO, EASTERN OCOTLÁN ZAPOTECO) [ZPV] 4,000 (1993 SIL). Central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 59% intelligibility with Western Ocotlán (closest). Monolinguals are mainly women and older people. 30% to 50% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:30%, 1:5%, 2:60%, 3:4%, 4:1%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists, sedentary pastoralists. Altitude: 1,666 to 3,030 meters. NT 1990. Bible portions 1986.
ZAPOTECO, SAN BARTOLO YAUTEPEC (NORTHWESTERN YAUTEPEC ZAPOTECO, YAUTEPEC ZAPOTEC) [ZPB] 314 speakers, 138 over 50 years old, 126 between 35 and 50. 4 monolinguals over 50 (1990 census). Eastern Oaxaca, San Bartolo Yautepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 10% intelligibility with Tlacolulita (closest), no intelligibility of other Zapoteco. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Survey needed.
ZAPOTECO, SAN BARTOLOMÉ ZOOGOCHO (ZOOGOCHO ZAPOTEC) [ZPQ] 1,000 in Mexico (1991 SIL); 400 in USA (1990 SIL); 1,400 total. Zoogocho, Yalina, Tabehua, and Oaxaca City, Oaxaca; Mexico City; and Los Angeles, California, USA. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: ZOOGOCHO, YALINA, TABEHUA. 57% intelligibility with Comaltepec (Choapan; closest). Zoogocho is the market town, so most Yatzachi people go there weekly, but Zoogocho people do not understand Yatzachi as well (80%). The local economy is supported to a large extent by those working outside the area. 60% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:10%, 2:45%, 3:20%, 4:14%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists in Zoogocho, wage laborers outside. Altitude: 900 to 1,800 meters. NT 1988. Bible portions 1979.
ZAPOTECO, SAN CRISTOBAL LACHIRUAJ (LACHIROAG, YATÉE-LACHIRUAJ) [ZTC] 5,000 speakers (1993 SIL). Oaxaca, Yatee, Lachiruaj. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Closest to Villa Alta Zapoteco and Yalalag Zapoteco, but distinct. Limited bilingualism. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, SAN JUAN ELOTEPEC (PAPABUCO) [ZTE] 200 speakers 50 years old and older (1990 census). Western Oaxaca, west of Zimatlán, 1 village. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 68% intelligibility of Santa María Zaniza (closest), 10% of Texmelucan. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Mountain slope. Nearly extinct.
ZAPOTECO, SAN JUAN GUELAVÍA (WESTERN TLACOLULA ZAPOTECO, GUELAVÍA ZAPOTEC) [ZAB] 28,000 (1990 census). Central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: JALIEZA ZAPOTECO, TEOTITLÁN DEL VALLE. 20% intelligibility with Zegache (closest). Jalieza has 99% intelligibility of Guelavía. Teotitlán del Valle has 100% intelligibility of Guelavía, but Guelavía only 59% of Teotitlán del Valle. 10% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:40%, 1:10%, 2:10%, 3:20%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Mountain valley. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,650 meters. NT 1995. Bible portions 1978-1984.
ZAPOTECO, SAN LORENZO TEXMELUCAN (CENTRAL SOLA DE VEGA ZAPOTECO, PAPABUCO, TEXMELUCAN ZAPOTEC) [ZPZ] 4,100 (1992 SIL). Western Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 95% monolingual. Closest to Western Sola de Vega (Zaniza). Zaniza and Elotepec Zapoteco are also called 'Papabuco'. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:70%, 1:20%, 2:8%, 3:2%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain slope. Swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,365 to 1,846 meters. NT 1989. Bible portions 1983-1984.
ZAPOTECO, SAN MIGUEL TILQUIAPAN (TILQUIAPAN ZAPOTEC) [ZTS] 2,700 speakers including 900 monolinguals (1990 census). Central Oaxaca, Ocotlán, San Miguel Tilquiapan town. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Sociolinguistic differences with nearest Zapoteco. 87% intelligibility of Yatzechi, 65% of Chichicaapan, 59% of Ocotlán, 45% of Guelavia. Speakers use Spanish as second language. Primary school with bilingual teachers. Electricity. Semi-arid, rocky. Agriculturalists. Altitude: 5,000 feet.
ZAPOTECO, SAN PABLO GÜILÁ (GÜILÁ ZAPOTEC) [ZTU] 9,500 (1990 census), including 2,300 monolinguals. San Pablo Güilá and San Dionisio Ocotepec municipios, Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: GUÏLÁ, SAN DIONISIO OCOTEPEC. San Dionisio has 80% inherent intelligibility of Mitla. Güilá has 83% inherent intelligibility of Guelavia, 80% of Chichicapan, 69% of Tilquiapan, 41% of Mitla, 35% of Ocotlán, 5% of Santa María Albarradas.
ZAPOTECO, SANTA CATARINA ALBARRADAS [ZTN] 1,000 or fewer (1990 census). Oaxaca, Santa Catarina Albarradas. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 80% intelligibility of Santo Domingo Albarradas; Santo Domingo 52% of Santa Catarina. Differences in phonology and grammar between them. About half the population can understand San Pedro Cajonos Zapoteco reasonably well because of trading with them.
ZAPOTECO, SANTA CATARINA QUIERÍ (QUIOQUITANI ZAPOTECO, QUIERÍ ZAPOTEC) [ZTQ] 4,000 (1991 SIL). Yautepec, Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: LEAPI ZAPOTECO. Closest to Eastern Miahuatlán. Bible portions 1990-1995. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, SANTA CATARINA XANAGUÍA (XANAGUIA ZAPOTEC) [ZTG] 2,500 (1990 census). Oaxaca, southeastern Miahuatlán, including three towns: Santa Catarina Xanaguía, San Francisco Ozolotepec, and San José Ozolotepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: SAN JOSÉ OZOLOTEPEC ZAPOTECO. Zapoteco is used by all in the home. 6th grade education in Spanish available in Xanaguía. Most children finish third or fourth grade. Those finishing 6th grade, the highest available locally, still have limited Spanish proficiency. Many women over 40 and some men have no education. They have pride in their language. Damp climate. Access by highway, logging road, foot. 10% literate. Typology: VSO. Swidden agriculturalists. Mountains. Altitude: 6,000 feet. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, SANTA MARÍA PETAPA (PETAPA ZAPOTEC) [ZPE] 8,000 speakers, including 220 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca, north of the Isthmus, Juchitán District, Santa María Petapa and Santo Domingo Petapa. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 55% intelligibility of Guevea (closest), 34% of Lachiguiri. Speakers use Spanish as second language.
ZAPOTECO, SANTA MARÍA ZANIZA (ZANIZA ZAPOTEC, WESTERN SOLA DE VEGA ZAPOTECO, PAPABUCO) [ZPW] 770 speakers including 4 monolinguals (1990 census). 35% of speakers are under 40. Western Oaxaca, Santa María Zaniza, Santiago Textitlán, Santiago Xochiltepec, El Frijol, Buenavista. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 10% intelligibility with Texmelucan (closest). Texmelucan is also called 'Papabuco'. Speakers use Spanish as second language.
ZAPOTECO, SANTIAGO LAPAGUÍA [ZTL] 4,200 (1983 SIL). Oaxaca, southeastern Miahuatlán, including four towns: Lapaguía (700, monolingual), San Felipe Lachillo (500, settled from Lapaguía), La Merced del Potrero (2,500, bilingual), San Juan Guivini (500, monolingual). Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 80% intelligibility with San Juan Mixtepec Zapoteco. Speakers are not very bilingual. Survey needed.
ZAPOTECO, SANTIAGO XANICA [ZPR] 2,500 (1990 census). Oaxaca, southeastern Miahuatlán, including four towns: Santiago Xanica, Santa María Coixtepec, San Andrés Lovene, San Antonio Ozolotepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 72% intelligibility with San Gregorio Ozolotepec, 70% with Cuixtla (Central Miahuatlán). Dry, warm climate. Access from coastal highway. Agriculturalists: coffee. Altitude: 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, SANTO TOMÁS MAZALTEPEC (ETLA ZAPOTECO, MAZALTEPEC ZAAPOTEC) [ZPY] 2,200 including 24 monolinguals (1990 census). Western Oaxaca Valley, Etla District, 20 km. northwest of Oaxaca city; Santo Tomás Mazaltepec, San Pedro y San Pablo Etla, and a few in San Andrés Zautla. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 10% intelligibility of Guelavía, none of other Zapoteco varieties. People have strong pride in the language. Zapoteco is used in the home. 25% of children do not speak Spanish when entering school. Speakers are somewhat bilingual in Spanish. Kindergarten and primary school. Several bilingual school teachers. Busses, mail service. Agriculturalists; adobe brick makers. Altitude: 5,600 feet.
ZAPOTECO, SIERRA DE JUÁREZ (ATEPEC ZAPOTEC, IXTLÁN ZAPOTECO) [ZAA] 4,000 including 150 monolinguals (1990 census). Northern Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: ABEJONES ZAPOTECO. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:25%, 1:25%, 2:25%, 3:18%, 4:5%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Sedentary pastoralists, swidden, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,540 to 2,770 meters. NT 1970. Bible portions 1951-1966.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTH CENTRAL ZIMATLÁN (SAN PEDRO EL ALTO ZAPOTECO, EL ALTO ZAPOTEC) [ZPP] 900 speakers, including 29 monolinguals (1990 census). Western Oaxaca, San Pedro el Alto, San Antonino el Alto, San Andrés el Alto. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 20% intelligibility with Totomachapan (closest). Speakers use Spanish as second language.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTHEASTERN IXTLÁN (YAVESIA ZAPOTECO, LATUVI ZAPOTECO) [ZPD] 6,000 (1992 SIL). Northern Oaxaca, Santa María Yavesia (center), Carrizal, Latuvi, Benito Juárez, Ixtlán de Juárez, Santa Catarina Lachatao, Llano Grande, La Trinidad, Nevería, San Miguel Amatlán, Capulalpan de Morelos, Santiago Xiacui, Natividad, Guelatao de Juárez. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 63% intelligibility of Atepec (Sierra de Juarez), 43% of Teococuilco. Speakers use Spanish as second language.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTHEASTERN YAUTEPEC (ASUNCIÓN TLACOLULITA ZAPOTECO, TLACOLULITA ZAPOTEC) [ZPK] 135 speakers, of whom 111 are 50 years old or older, out of a population of 904 (1990 census). Eastern Oaxaca, Asunción Tlacolulita and San Juan Alotepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 15% intelligibility with Lachixila (closest), 10% on Mitla and Guelavía, 0% on Lachiguiri, Juchitán, Guevea de Humboldt, Petapa, San Juan Mixtepec, and Quiegolani. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Nearly extinct.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTHEASTERN ZIMATLÁN (SANTA INEZ ZEGACHE ZAPOTECO, SANTA INEZ YATSECHE ZAPOTECO, ZEGACHE ZAPOTEC) [ZPN] 2,235 speakers, including 176 monolinguals (1990 census). There is a high percentage of monolinguals in the lower age groups in Santa Inez Yatseche. Central Oaxaca, Zimatlán District, 40 km. south of Oaxaca city, west of Ocotlán de Morelos. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: ZAACHILA. 75% intelligibility with San Antonino Ocotlán (closest). Zaachila may need some separate literature, although Zapoteco is going out of use there. San Miguel Tilquiapan may be a dialect. Zapoteco is apparently no longer spoken in Santa Ana Zegache. Vigorous language use, including among children, in Santa Inez. Bible portions 1989-1991. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTHERN EJUTLA (SAN VICENTE COATLÁN ZAPOTECO) [ZPT] 2,430 including 584 monolinguals, 166 of whom are 5 to 9 years old (1990 census). Oaxaca, Ejutla District, 90 km. south of Oaxaca city. San Vicente Coatlán, a municipio town. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 75% intelligibility of San Baltázar Loxicha (closest, Northwestern Pochutla), 45% of Santa María Coatlán. Vigorous language use. Primary school. Electricity, truck service for market days. Agriculturalists; mezcal makers.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTHERN RINCÓN (RINCON-SUR ZAPOTEC) [ZSR] 12,000 (1990 census). Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. NT 1992.
ZAPOTECO, SOUTHERN VILLA ALTA (SAN PEDRO CAJONOS ZAPOTECO, CAJONOS ZAPOTEC) [ZAD] 5,000 (1993 SIL). Northern Oaxaca, towns of San Pedro Cajonos, San Francisco, San Mateo, San Miguel. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 73% intelligibility with Zoogocho (closest). Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:20%, 2:15%, 3:25%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists, craftsmen, merchants. Altitude: 1,800 meters. Bible portions 1982. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, TEJALAPAN (SAN FELIPE TEJALAPAN ZAPOTEC, TEJALAPAN ZAPOTEC) [ZTT] 124 (1990 census); 92 are over 50 years old, including the 2 monolinguals. The town has 4,656 people. Oaxaca, Etla District, town of San Felipe Tejalapan. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. A separate language from Santo Tomás Mazaltepec Zapoteco. They came from Ixtepeji area 300 years ago. Spanish is used as second language. Nearly extinct.
ZAPOTECO, WESTERN IXTLÁN (TEOCOCUILCO DE MARCOS PÉREZ ZAPOTECO, SANTA INEZ YARENI, ETLA ZAPOTEC) [ZAE] 6,000 (1982 SIL). Northern Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialect: SANTA ANA YARENI ZAPOTEC. 80% intelligibility with Sierra de Juarez Zapoteco (closest). Speakers are not bilingual in Spanish. 60% to 75% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism are 0:20%, 1:40%, 2:25%, 3:10%, 4:5%, 5:0%. Sedentary pastoralists, peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,900 to 2,300 meters. Bible portions 1966-1990. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, WESTERN MIAHUATLÁN (SANTA MARÍA COATLÁN ZAPOTECO, SAN MIGUEL ZAPOTECO) [ZPS] 500 or fewer (1992 SIL). Southern Oaxaca near Chatino region, about 7 towns, but mainly in Santo Domingo Coatlán. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 54% intelligibility of Loxicha (closest), 51% of San Gregorio Ozolotepec, 44% of Cuixtla, 29% of Logueche, 16% of San Juan Mixtepec, 1% of Santa Catalina Quierí. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Survey needed.
ZAPOTECO, WESTERN OCOTLÁN (OCOTLÁN ZAPOTEC, CENTRAL OCOTLÁN ZAPOTECO) [ZAC] 15,000 (1993 SIL). Ocotlán, central Oaxaca, around Santiago Apóstol. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 67% intelligibility with Tilquiapan (closest). 50% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:30%, 2:40%, 3:10%, 4:6%, 5:4%. Plains. Peasant agriculturalists, merchants. Altitude: 1,385 meters. NT 1983. Bible portions 1966.
ZAPOTECO, WESTERN POCHUTLA [ZTP] 50,000 (1990 census). Oaxaca, 120 km. south of Oaxaca city, west of highway 175, half way between Miahuatlán and Pochutla. Includes Candelaria Loxicha, Buena Vista, and San Bartolomé Loxicha. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. Dialects: SAN AGUSTÍN LOXICHA ZAPOTECO, CANDELARIA LOXICHA ZAPOTECO. Distinct from San Baltázar Loxicha and Santa Catarina Loxicha. People in town centers are fairly bilingual. In many towns perhaps 70% of the men and 90% of the women are monolingual. Bible portions. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, WESTERN YAUTEPEC (SANTA MARÍA QUIEGOLANI ZAPOTECO, QUIEGOLANI ZAPOTEC) [ZPI] 3,000 (1990 census). Central Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 60% intelligibility with San Juan Mixtepec (closest). Traditional religion, Christian. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, WESTERN ZIMATLÁN (SAN PEDRO TOTOMACHAPAN ZAPOTECO, TOTOMACHAPAN ZAPOTEC) [ZPH] 259 speakers, most over 50 years old, out of a population of 1,009 (1990 census). Western Oaxaca, 2 towns. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. No intelligibility with other Zapoteco. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Nearly extinct.
ZAPOTECO, YALALAG [ZPU] 5,000 (1990 census). 2,000 are in Yalalag, others are in D.F, Oaxaca City, Veracruz. Also in Los Angeles, California, USA. Oaxaca. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 60% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, short words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:10%, 2:30%, 3:30%, 4:10%, 5:10%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists, craftsmen. Altitude: 1,400 meters. Bible portions 1988-1992. Work in progress.
ZAPOTECO, YATZACHI (YATZACHI ZAPOTEC, VILLA ALTA ZAPOTEC) [ZAV] 2,500 (1990 census). Villages of Yatzachi el Bajo, Yatzachi el Alto,Xoochixtepec, Yohueche, Zoochina, Zoochila, Yalina, north central Oaxaca; and Los Angeles, California, USA. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 90% intelligibility with Zoogocho, 85% with Cajonos (Southern Villa Alta) and Yalalag, and somewhat intelligible with Solaga and Tabaa. 60% literate. Typology: VSO, tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:10%, 1:10%, 2:40%, 3:20%, 4:14%, 5:1%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists in Oaxaca, wage laborers outside. Altitude: 615 to 1,690 meters. NT 1971. Bible portions 1936-1966.
ZAPOTECO, ZAACHILA (SAN RAYMUNDO JALPAN ZAPOTEC) [ZTX] 550 speakers over 50 years old, including 3 women monolinguals, out of a population of over 10,000 (1990 census). Oaxaca, 15 km. south of the city of Oaxaca, past Xoxo, town of Zaachila (416 speakers out of 10,601 population) and San Raymundo Jalpan (116 speakers out of 1,270 population). A few in San Bartolo Coyotepec, San Pablo Cuatro Venados, and Santa María Coyotepec. Oto-Manguean, Zapotecan, Zapotec. 85% intelligibility of Zegeche, 75% of Tilquiapan, 72% of Guelavía, 10% of Ocotlán. Only people over 50 years of age understand the language but do not normally speak it. No children speak it. Bilingual in Spanish.
ZOQUE, COPAINALÁ [ZOC] 10,000 (1990 census). Copainalá, Chiapas. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Chiapas Zoque. Dialects: OCOTEPEC, OSTUACÁN. 83% intelligibility with Francisco León (closest). Typology: VSO, non-tonal, long words, affixes, clitics. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:0%, 1:5%, 2:5%, 3:30%, 4:50%, 5:10%. Mountain slope, riverine. Agriculturalists. Altitude: 215 to 1,845 meters. NT 1967. Bible portions 1948-1965.
ZOQUE, FRANCISCO LEÓN (SANTA MAGDALENA ZOQUE) [ZOS] 20,000 (1990 census). Mezcalapa, Chiapas. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Chiapas Zoque. Close to Copainalá. The eruption of El Chicón volcano in 1982 has necessitated relocation; the original town of Francisco León is buried. Typology: non-tonal, long words, affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:40%, 1:35%, 2:10%, 3:10%, 4:3%, 5:2%. Mountain slope. Peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 200 to 800 meters. NT 1978. Bible portions 1964-1995.
ZOQUE, RAYÓN [ZOR] 2,000 to 2,300 speakers including about 20 monolinguals in a population of 10,400 (1990 census). Northwest Chiapas, Rayón and Tapilula. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Chiapas Zoque. Distinct from other Zoque. Limited bilingualism. Dictionary. Typology: non-tonal, VOS, short and long words, clitic and affixes. Levels of bilingualism in Spanish are 0:25%, 1:25%, 2:50%, 3:0%, 4:0%, 5:0%. Mountain mesa. Swidden or peasant agriculturalists. Altitude: 1,337 meters. Survey needed.
ZOQUE, SANTA MARÍA CHIMALAPA [ZOH] 4,500 including 15 monolinguals (1990 census). Oaxaca. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Oaxaca Zoque. Dialects: SANTA MARÍA CHIMALAPA, SAN MIGUEL CHIMALAPA. Bible portions.
ZOQUE, TABASCO (AYAPANEC) [ZOQ] 40 speakers (1971 García de León); 367 in the ethnic group (1960 census). Municipio of Jalapa de Méndez, Ayapa in Tabasco. Mixe-Zoque, Zoque, Veracruz Zoque. Speakers are bilingual in Spanish. Nearly extinct.
Part of the Ethnologue, 13th Edition, Barbara F. Grimes, Editor.
Copyright © 1996, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Inc. All rights reserved.
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