27,567,000 (1993 Johnstone). Indian (800,000) and Eskimo (32,000) ethnic total (1993): 146,285 mother tongue speakers (1981 census). Literacy rate 96% to 99%. Also includes Arabic 93,000, Chinese 780,000, from India and Pakistan 280,000, from the Philippines 95,000, speakers of many European languages. Information mainly from Chafe 1962, 1965, SIL 1991. Christian, secular, Muslim, Jewish. Blind population 27,184. Deaf institutions: many. Data accuracy estimate: Data accuracy estimate: A1, A2. The number of languages listed for Canada is 79. Of those, 76 are living languages and 3 are extinct.
ABNAKI-PENOBSCOT [ABE] 20 speakers (1991 M. Krauss) out of 1,800 population including USA (1982 SIL). Total population probably evenly divided between the two dialects. Quebec on St. Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Dialects: WESTERN ABNAKI (ABENAKI, ST. FRANCIS, ABENAQUI), PENOBSCOT (EASTERN ABNAKI). Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions 1844. Nearly extinct.
ALGONQUIN (ALGONKIN) [ALG] 3,000 speakers out of 5,000 population (1987 SIL). Southwestern Quebec, northwest of Ottawa and in adjacent area of Ontario. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Ojibwa. Several dialects. In the west children prefer the national language, although some may speak Algonquin; most adults speak Algonquin; young adults may prefer the national language. Elsewhere Algonquin is the principal means of communication and spoken by the majority of all ages. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1980-1993. Work in progress.
ASSINIBOINE (ASSINIBOIN) [ASB] 150 to 200 total fluent speakers over 40 years old, most over 60, out of 3,500 population including USA (1986 SIL). Central Alberta, west central Saskatchewan. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dakota. 94% lexical similarity with Dakota of Manitoba, 90% with Dakota of North Dakota, 89% with Lakota and Stoney. English is spoken extensively.
ATIKAMEKW (TÊTE DE BOULE, ATTIMEWK, ATIHKAMEKW, ATIKAMEK) [TET] 3,225 speakers out of 3,225 population (1986 SIL). 98% speak Atikamekw. Reservations of Manuane, Obedjiwan, Weymontachie north of Montreal in south central Quebec, upper reaches of the St. Maurice River above La Tuuque. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Language use is vigorous. Three subgroups: Manawan, Wemotaci, Opitciwan. Very different from Montagnais and Naskapi in the nearby area. They speak French as second language. 50% to 75% literate. Hunters, trappers. Bible portions 1980-1983. Work in progress.
BABINE (BABINE CARRIER, NORTHERN CARRIER) [BCR] 1,600 speakers out of 2,200 population (1982 SIL). Areas of Burns Lake, Babine Lake, Moricetown, west central British Columbia. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Carrier-Chilcotin, Babine-Carrier. Babine is still the principal means of communication among middle-aged adults and older. Children and young adults may speak Babine but prefer English. 50% to 75% literate. Bible portions 1978. Work in progress.
BEAVER [BEA] 300 speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 600 population (1987 SIL). Peace River area of eastern British Columbia and northwestern Alberta. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Beaver-Sekani. Language use is vigorous. 25% to 50% literate. Bible portions 1886-1976. Work in progress.
BELLA COOLA (NUXALK) [BEL] 200 or fewer speakers out of 700 population (1991 M.D. Kinkade). Inlet on the central British Columbia coast. Salishan, Bella Coola. Speakers are bilingual in English. Language courses in Bella Coola (1991). Grammar, Dictionary.
BLACKFOOT (PIKANII) [BLC] 9,000 total speakers out of 15,000 population including USA (1977 SIL); 1,062 speakers in USA (1990 census). Blackfoot, Piegan, and Blood Reserves in southern Alberta. Algic, Algonquian, Plains. Dialects: PIEGAN, BLOOD. In some Canadian locations Blackfoot remains the principal means of communication for older adults. Children and young adults tend to prefer English. Grammars, dictionaries. Bible portions 1890-1980.
CANADIAN SIGN LANGUAGE (CSL) [CSD] English speaking areas of Canada. Deaf sign language. Reported to have similarities to British Sign Language. Strong influence from American Sign Language. Structurally and grammatically distinct from French Canadian Sign Language (FCSL). Has grammatical characteristics independent of English. A few adults know both CSL and FCSL. Recognized by the government as a real language. Sign language interpreters required for deaf people in court. Used for deaf college students sometimes, important public functions, job training and social service programs. There is sign language instruction for parents of deaf children, and many classes for hearing people. There is a committee on national sign language. There is an organization for sign language teachers. Some research on the language. There is a manual alphabet. Dictionary, videos, film. Some signed interpretation on TV. Survey needed.
CARRIER (CENTRAL CARRIER) [CAR] 1,500 speakers out of 2,100 population (1987 SIL). All Athapaskan language family mother tongue speakers in Canada 11,655 (1981 census). Central British Columbia, Stuart and Fraser Lake area. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Carrier-Chilcotin, Babine-Carrier. In some communities language use is vigorous among adults. Most children and young adults prefer English. 50% to 75% literate. Grammar, dictionaries. NT 1995. Bible portions 1975-1980.
CARRIER, SOUTHERN [CAF] 500 (1987 SIL). Central British Columbia, west of Williams Lake. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Carrier-Chilcotin, Babine-Carrier. Language use is vigorous. 90% lexical similarity with Central Carrier. Can use literature adapted from Central Carrier. Limited bilingualism. 50% to 75% literate. Survey needed.
CAYUGA [CAY] 360 speakers in Canada; 10 in USA (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); out of 3,000 population including USA (1977 SIL). Six Nations, Ontario. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Seneca-Onondaga, Seneca-Cayuga. In Ontario most speakers are middle-aged or older. In USA only a few older people speak the language. English is the first or second language for the ethnic group.
CHILCOTIN [CHI] 1,200 speakers out of 1,800 population (1982 SIL). West of Williams Lake, south central British Columbia. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Carrier-Chilcotin, Chilcotin. Language use is vigorous among adults. Many children prefer English. 25% to 50% literate. Typology: SOV. Work in progress.
CHINOOK WAWA (CHINOOK JARGON, CHINOOK PIDGIN) [CRW] 100 total speakers possibly including USA, all over 50 years old (1962 Chafe); 17 speakers in USA (1990 census). British Columbia. Pidgin, Amerindian. Formerly used along the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska, between Indian and white, and between speakers of different languages. All speakers are now probably scattered. Bible portions 1912. Nearly extinct.
CHIPEWYAN (DENE) [CPW] 4,000 speakers of all ages out of 5,000 population (1982 SIL). Northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Hare-Chipewyan, Chipewyan. Dialect: YELLOWKNIFE. 25% to 50% literate. Grammars, Dictionary. NT 1881. Bible portions 1878. Work in progress.
COMOX (COMOX-SLIAMMON) [COO] 400 speakers or fewer, including 1 speaker of Island Comox, fewer than 400 of Sliammon (1991 M. Dale Kinkade), out of a population of 850 (1983). British Columbia, Vancouver Island and the coast north of Powell River. Salishan, Central Salish, Northern. Dialects: ISLAND COMOX, SLIAMMON. Speakers are primarily middle-aged and older, and all speak the Sliammon (mainland) dialect. No speakers of Island Comox left. Speakers use English as second language, and other members of the ethnic group speak English as mother tongue. Grammar.
CREE, CENTRAL (YORK CREE, WEST SHORE CREE, WEST MAIN CREE) [CRM] 4,500 speakers out of 5,000 population (1982 SIL). All Cree mother tongue speakers in Canada 60,000 (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Moose Cree is in the southern tip of James Bay in Moosonee, Ontario. Swampy Cree is northwestward across Ontario into northeastern Manitoba. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Dialects: EASTERN SWAMPY CREE, MOOSE CREE. Language use is vigorous. 75% to 100% literate. Lexicon of 15,000 words of Cree. Grammar. NT 1876-1976. Bible portions 1853-1894.
CREE, COASTAL EASTERN (COASTAL CREE, EASTERN COASTAL CREE) [CRL] 5,000 speakers out of 5,800 population (1987 SIL). Quebec, east coast of James Bay. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Sometimes classified as Montagnais. Language use is vigorous. 50% to 75% literate. Bible portions 1921. Work in progress.
CREE, INLAND EASTERN (INLAND CREE, EASTERN INLAND CREE) [CRE] 2,200 speakers out of 2,200 population (1987 SIL). Quebec, southeastward from James Bay to Lake Mistassini in Quebec. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Sometimes classified as Montagnais. Language use is vigorous. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1853-1995. Work in progress.
CREE, WESTERN [CRP] 35,000 total or more speakers out of 53,000 or more population including USA (1982 SIL). North central Manitoba westward across Saskatchewan and Alberta. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Dialects: WOODS CREE, PLAINS CREE, WESTERN SWAMPY CREE. Vigorous language use by all ages in north. In the south speakers are mainly middle-aged or older. 75% to 100% literate. Bible 1862. NT 1859-1986. Bible portions 1847-1992.
DAKOTA (SIOUX) [DHG] 5,000 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kincaid); 15,355 in USA including 31 monolinguals (1990 census); 20,355 total speakers out of 23,000 population including USA (1977 SIL). Southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dakota. Dialects: DAKOTA (SANTEE), NAKOTA (YANKTON). Language use is vigorous in some communities, in others children and young adults may not speak Dakota or may prefer English. 83% to 86% lexical similarity with Stoney, 89% to 94% with Assiniboine, 90% to 95% among dialects. 50% to 75% literate. Bible 1879. NT 1865. Bible portions 1839-1976.
DOGRIB [DGB] 2,668 speakers of all ages out of 2,965 population (1994 J. Feenstra SIL). Between Great Slave Lake and Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories, 5 communities (Rae, Detah, Rae Lakes, Lac la Martre, Snare Lake) and a subdivision of Yellowknife. Rae is the center. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Hare-Chipewyan, Hare-Slave. Dialect: DETAH-NDILO. 84% lexical similarity with Southern Slavey, 82% with Northern Slavey. The Detah-Ndilo dialect developed from intermarriage between the Yellowknife subdivision of the Chipewyan and the Dogrib. 12% of the Dogrib are monolingual in Dogrib, including children and the elderly; 16% also speak a little English; 37% speak both languages, but speak Dogrib better; 14% speak both languages equally; 9% speak both, bbut speak English better; 7% speak English and a little Dogrib; 3% are monolingual in English (children). Adults prefer to use Dogrib in most contexts. There is bilingual education. One Dogrib band has frequent contact and close relationships with the Bear Lake (North Slavey) people of Fort Franklin. Relations with the Inuit and the Chipewyan have traditionally been strained. 25% to 50% literate. Grammar, dictionary. Typology: SOV. Canadian shield, rocks, lakes. Hunters, trappers. Altitude: 300 feet. Work in progress.
ENGLISH [ENG] 14,122,770 mother tongue speakers in Canada (1976 Govt. report); 322,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). Indo-European, Germanic, West, North Sea, English. National language. Braille Bible. Bible 1382-1989. NT 1380-1993. Bible portions 1530-1993.
ESKIMO SIGN LANGUAGE [ESL] Near Arctic Circle. Deaf sign language. Distinct from Canadian and French Canadian sign languages. Survey needed.
FRENCH (FRANÇAIS) [FRN] 6,000,000 mother tongue speakers in Canada (M. Harris in B. Comrie 1988); 72,000,000 in all countries (1995 WA). Quebec, New Brunswick, and other regions. Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Italo-Western, Western, Gallo-Romance. Dialect: QUÉBÉCOIS. National language. Braille Bible. Bible 1530-1986. NT 1474-1980. Bible portions 1483-1987.
FRENCH CANADIAN SIGN LANGUAGE (LANGUE SIGNE QUEBECARS, LANGUE DES SIGNES QUÉBÉCOISE, LSQ, FCSL) [FCS] Eastern Canada. Deaf sign language. Structurally and grammatically distinct from Canadian Sign Language (CSL). Reported to have some similarities to French Sign Language (FSL). Some isolated areas in northern Quebec use Signed French. Segregated deaf education by sex has resulted in some lexical differences between the sexes; female use more influenced by ASL and LSQ; male by Signed French and LSQ. It is rare for a deaf child to learn both LSQ and CSL. A few adults have a working knowledge of both. Has grammatical characteristics independent of French. Recognized by the government as a real language.
GERMAN, HUTTERITE (TYROLESE, TIROLEAN, HUTTERIAN GERMAN) [GEH] 15,000 in western Canada, including 7,000 in Alberta. 5,000 in USA (1981 P. Fast SIL); 30,000 in all countries (V. Peters 1982); other estimates of up to 100,000. 76 colonies in Alberta, 12 or 13 in Saskatchewan, 27 in Manitoba, some in British Columbia, 30 in USA, with about 100 people in each, an estimated 300 colonies around the world. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, High. Strict communal living. In addition to attendance at public schools, children attend supplemental private schools with instruction in religion and Standard German. Some reports says adults are usually equally fluent in English and Standard German, others that most understand English better and have limited understanding in Standard German. They all use Hutterite German in the home, but use Standard German in church for written sermons and for Scriptures. Communal groups in New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Japan have affiliated recently with the Hutterians, but are not ethnically Hutterian (Victor Peters 1982). About 70% intelligible to a speaker of Pennsylvania German; about 50% to a speaker of Plautdietsch and Standard German. Although it is called 'Tirolean', it is not a Tirolean dialect. Intensive agriculturalists. Christian.
GERMAN, PENNSYLVANIA (PENNSYLVANISCH, PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH) [PDC] 15,000 in Canada (1995); 85,000 in USA, including 70,000 Amish; 100,000 in both countries. Kitchener-Waterloo area, Ontario. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, High. Dialects: AMISH PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN, NON-AMISH PENNSYLVANIA GERMAN (PENNSYLVANISCH DEITSCH). Christian. NT 1994. Bible portions 1955-1975.
GWICH'IN (KUTCHIN) [KUC] 1,500 total speakers out of 2,600 population including USA (1977 SIL). Between Old Crow, Yukon, and the lower MacKenzie River, Northwest Territories. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Han-Kutchin. Dialects: FORT YUKON GWICH'IN, ARCTIC VILLAGE GWICH'IN, WESTERN CANADA GWICH'IN (TAKUDH, TUKUDH, LOUCHEUX), ARCTIC RED RIVER. Most adults speak the language. Younger ones may speak it but tend to prefer English except in a few communities where use of the language is vigorous by all ages. 50% to 75% literate. Grammar, dictionary. Bible 1898. NT 1886. Bible portions 1873-1986. Work in progress.
HAIDA [HAI] 225 mother tongue speakers in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 138 speakers in USA (1990 census); 363 total, out of 2,000 total population (1977 SIL). Queen Charlotte Island, British Columbia. Na-Dene, Haida. Dialects: SKIDEGATE, MASSET (NORTHERN HAIDA). Most or all speakers are middle-aged or over. Skidegate and Masset are not altogether inherently intelligible. English is the second language. Language courses in Haida (1991). Grammars, dictionary. Bible portions 1891-1899.
HAISLA [HAS] 25 fluent speakers, fewer than 200 speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade), out of 1,000 population (1977 SIL). Inlet on central British Columbia coast. Wakashan, Northern. Dialect: KITIMAT (KITAMAT). Related to Heiltsuk and Kwakiutl. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Dictionary.
HALKOMELEM [HUR] 500 speakers out of 6,700 population (1977 SIL). Southwestern British Columbia. Salishan, Central Salish, Halkomelem. Dialects: CHILIWACK, COWICHAN, MUSQUEAM, NANAIMO. All speakers are middle-aged or older. English is the second language. Language courses in Halkomelem (1991). Grammars, dictionary.
HAN (HAN-KUTCHIN, MOOSEHIDE, DAWSON) [HAA] Few speakers in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 18 in Alaska (1990 census); out of 250 population including USA (1977 SIL). Yukon River area in Alaska-Canada border. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Han-Kutchin. All speakers are over 50 years old. Nearly extinct.
HEILTSUK [HEI] 300 speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 1,200 population (1977 SIL). Central British Columbia coast. Wakashan, Northern. Dialect: BELLA BELLA. Related to Haisla and Kwakiutl. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Dictionary.
INUKTITUT, EASTERN CANADIAN (EASTERN CANADIAN ESKIMO, EASTERN ARCTIC ESKIMO, INUIT) [ESB] 14,000 speakers out of 17,500 population (1991 L. Kaplan). West of Hudson Bay and east through Baffin Island, Quebec, and Labrador. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Inuit. Dialects: BAFFINLAND ESKIMO, LABRADOR ESKIMO, QUEBEC ESKIMO. Vigorous language use except in Labrador, where less than half are speakers. 75% to 100% literate. Inuit is the name of the people, Inuktitut of the language. Bible 1826-1871. NT 1871-1993. Bible portions 1810-1990.
INUKTITUT, NORTH ALASKAN (NORTH ALASKAN ESKIMO) [ESI] 3,500 total speakers out of a total population of 8,000 (1990 M.D. Kaplan). Mackenzie delta region to Norton Sound, Alaska, USA. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Inuit. Dialects: MACKENZIE ESKIMO, INUPIAT ESKIMO. Most speakers are over 30. Younger speakers often prefer English. 50% to 75% literate. NT 1968, in press (1992). Bible portions 1920-1964.
INUKTITUT, WESTERN CANADIAN [ESC] 4,000 speakers out of a population of 7,500 (1981). All Eskimo mother tongue speakers in Canada 18,840 (1981 census). Central Canadian Arctic, and west to the Mackenzie Delta and coastal area. Eskimo-Aleut, Eskimo, Inuit. Dialects: COPPER INUKTITUT (COPPER ESKIMO, COPPER INUIT), CARIBOU ESKIMO (KEEWATIN), NETSILIK, SIGLIT. Language use vigorous in Caribou and Netsilik. 50% to 75% literate. Caribou may need separate literature. Bible portions 1920-1972. Work in progress.
KASKA (CASKA, EASTERN NAHANE, NAHANE, NAHANI) [KKZ] 200 to 500 speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 750 population (1977 SIL). Southeastern Yukon territory and British Columbia. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tahltan-Kaska. Closely related to Tahltan. Most adults speak the language. Many younger ones prefer English and some may not speak Kaska.
KUTENAI (KTUNAXA, KOOTENAI, KOOTENAY) [KUN] 100 mother tongue speakers in Canada (1981 census); 102 speakers in USA (1990 census); 202 total speakers, out of an ethnic population of 1,500 including USA (1991). Southeastern British Columbia. Language Isolate. All speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Columbia Lake Reserve EKCC is offering Kutenai as a second language course (1991). Bilingual in English. Grammar, dictionary.
KWAKIUTL (KWAGIUTL, KWAKWALA) [KWK] 250 or fewer good speakers in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 3,300 population (1977 SIL); 45 in USA (1990 census); 295 or fewer in both countries. All Wakashan mother tongue speakers 975 (1981 census). Northern Vancouver Island and adjacent mainland, British Columbia. Wakashan, Northern. Related to Haisla and Heiltsuk. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammar, dictionaary. Bible portions 1882-1900.
LAURENTIAN (ST. LAWRENCE IROQUOIAN) [LRE] Along the St. Lawrence River. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian. A group of languages, at least one with no modern descendents. Encountered by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and 1535. Extinct.
LILLOOET [LIL] 300 to 400 speakers (1990 M.D. Kinkade) out of a population of 2,800 (1977 SIL). In area of Lillooet and middle Fraser Rivers, southern British Columbia. Salishan, Interior Salish, Northern. Extensive bilingualism in English. Most speakers are middle aged or older. Language courses in Lillooet (1991). Grammar, dictionary.
MALECITE-PASSAMAQUODDY [MAC] 1,500 total speakers out of 3,000 population including USA (1982 SIL); 887 speakers in USA (1990 census). New Brunswick. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Dialects: MALECITE (MALISEET), PASSAMAQUODDY. Malecite mainly in Canada, Passamaquoddy in Maine. Most speakers are older, but in some communities younger ones may speak the language. English is preferred by most younger ones. Interest in the language is increasing in some quarters. Grammars, dictionary. Bible portions 1870.
MICMAC (RESTIGOUCHE) [MIC] 6,000 speakers out of 11,000 population in Canada (1977 SIL); 2,000 in Boston; 10 to 100 in New York City (1978 Kloss and McConnell); 8,100 in both countries. Central and northern Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, coastal New Brunswick, and eastern Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec (Restigouche). Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Most adults speak Micmac. Younger ones may prefer English. In some communities usage is more vigorous, in others less. Speakers of Restigouche Quebec dialect have difficulty understanding other dialects. 50% to 75% literate. Grammar, dictionary. NT 1874. Bible portions 1853-1980. Work in progress.
MITCHIF (FRENCH CREE, METIS) [CRG] Turtle Mountain Reservation, North Dakota, USA, and scattered locations in Canada. Creole, Cree-French. French creole or almost a creole. Closest to Plains Cree. Several varieties. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Formerly buffalo hunters.
MOHAWK [MOH] 3,000 total speakers out of 10,000 population including USA (1977 SIL); 1,667 speakers in USA (1990 census). All Iroquoian mother tongue speakers in Canada 6,075 (1981 census). Southwestern Quebec, southern Ontario. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Mohawk-Oneida. Most speakers are middle-aged or over. In some areas younger ones may speak the language. 75% to 100% literate. Grammar, dictionaries. Bible portions 1787-1991. Work in progress.
MONTAGNAIS [MOE] 8,000 speakers of all ages out of 10,000 population (1996 D. Myers SIL). 5,000 of of the 8,000 are fluent in English or French (1996 Myers). Along the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, Quebec, Labrador coast and inland at Schefferville. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Cree. Language use is vigorous in most areas by all ages, except in the southwest where younger ones tend to prefer the national language. 5,000 out of the 8,000 speakers are fluent in English or French. The 3,000 who are not are mainly men over 55 and women of all ages. 50% to 75% literate in French or English, 5% in Montagnais. Dictionary in Montagnais-Naskapi. Traditionally hunters, trappers, fishermen. NT 1991. Bible portions 1980-1986.
MUNSEE (DELAWARE) [UMU] 7 or 8 speakers out of 400 population (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Southern Ontario, Moraviantown Reserve. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Only elderly speakers left. Close to Unami in USA, but a separate language. Grammars. Bible portions 1818-1821. Nearly extinct.
NASKAPI [NSK] 400 speakers out of 765 population (1987 SIL). Schefferville and Davis Inlet on Labrador coast. Algic, Algonquian, Eastern. Closely related to Montagnais, but distinct. Language use is vigorous. 50% to 75% literate. Dictionary in Montagnais-Naskapi. Work in progress.
NASS-GITKSIAN [NCG] 2,500 speakers out of 5,000 population (1977 SIL). Niska on Nass River and Gitksian on Skeena River in west central British Columbia. Penutian, Tsimshian. Dialects: NISKA (NISHKA, NISK'A, NISGA'A), GITKSIAN (GIKLSAN, GITKSAN, GITXSAN, GITYSKYAN). Most adults speak the language. Most young adults prefer English. Some children speak the language but most prefer English. Grammar, dictionaries. Bible portions 1906.
NOOTKA (NUTKA) [NOO] 600 or fewer good speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade), out of 3,500 population (1977 SIL). Nitinat has about 30 speakers (1991 Kinkade). Western British Columbia and Nitinat along Pacific side of Vancouver Island. Wakashan, Southern. Dialects: NITINAT (NITINAHT), NOOTKA. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. People are called 'West Coast People'. Bilingual in English. Grammars, dictionary.
NOVA SCOTIAN SIGN LANGUAGE [NSR] Nova Scotia. Deaf sign language. Distinct from Canadian and French Canadian sign languages. Now remembered only by older deaf people. Nearly extinct.
OJIBWA, EASTERN (OJIBWE, OJIBWAY) [OJG] 8,000 total speakers out of 25,000 population including USA (1977 SIL). All Ojibwa mother tongue speakers in Canada 30,000; 20,000 in USA (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Around Lake Huron and southeastern Ontario. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Ojibwa. Dialects: CHIPPEWA, OTTAWA (ODAWA). Language is dying out in many areas, but is still spoken by most adults and some younger ones in large Indian population on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron. Concerted effort via language teaching in public schools and other efforts to reverse the decline. Probably all speakers are bilingual in English, and some in other Ojibwa varieties. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions 1841-1844.
OJIBWA, NORTHERN (NORTHERN OJIBWE, CREE-SAULTEAUX, CREE) [OJB] 8,000 speakers out of 8,000 population (1977 SIL). Lake Superior northward to Big Trout Lake, Ontario; and east-west from Ogoki in Ontario west to Berens River and Island Lake, Manitoba. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Ojibwa. Dialects: WINISK RIVER OJIBWE, SEVERN OJIBWE, BERENS RIVER OJIBWE, LAC SEUL OJIBWE, ALBANY RIVER OJIBWE. A range of local dialects, including communities along the USA-Canada border from Lake Superior (Thunder Bay and Nipigon) east to Lake-of-the-Woods and Lake Winnipeg; along the upper (western) Albany River system (Ogoki, Fort Hope, Osnaburgh, Pickle Lake, Slate Falls, Cat Lake); Lac Seul and Red Lake; those along the Berens River from Pikangikum Ontario to Berens River Manitoba; those connected with the inland Winisk River and Severn River systems as far west as Island Lake, Manitoba. The latter are popularly called 'OjiCree' and sometimes 'Cree' because of shared features with Cree dialects which border on the north and west. Language use is vigorous. NT 1988. Bible portions 1974-1986.
OJIBWA, WESTERN (SAULTEAUX, SAULTEURS, CHIPPEWA, SOUTHERN OJIBWAY) [OJI] 35,000 total speakers out of 60,000 population including USA (1977 SIL). Southern Canada from Lake Superior westward and northwestward into Saskatchewan. Outlying groups as far west as British Columbia. Algic, Algonquian, Central, Ojibwa. Dialects: WESTERN CHIPPEWA, LAKE OF THE WOODS OJIBWA. Ojibwa is the major means of communication of most of the ethnic group in Canada, although in some areas young people and children may prefer English. In USA most speakers are middle-aged or older. NT 1833-1854. Bible portions 1831-1874.
OKANAGAN (OKANAGAN-COLVILLE, OKANAGON, OKANOGAN) [OKA] 500 total speakers out of 3,000 population including USA (1977 SIL); 112 speakers in USA (1990 census). Another source says 10,00 in the ethnic group (1996 Peter Stark). All Salishan mother tongue speakers in Canada 895 (1981 census). South central British Columbia. Salishan, Interior Salish, Southern. Dialects: SOUTHERN OKANAGAN, SANPAIL. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Language courses in Okanagan (1991). Grammars, dictionary.
ONEIDA [ONE] 200 speakers in Canada; 50 in USA (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 7,000 population in both countries (1977 SIL). Southern Ontario. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Mohawk-Oneida. In Canada most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. In the USA only a few elderly speakers remain. Bilingual in English. Grammar. Bible portions 1880-1942.
ONONDAGA (ONANDAGA) [ONO] 50 to 100 speakers in Canada (1991 H. Dale Kinkade); 15 in USA (1993 V. Zeps); 65 to 115 in both countries, out of 1,500 total population (1977 SIL). Southern Ontario. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Seneca-Onondaga, Onondaga. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammars.
PENTLATCH (PUNTLATCH) [PTW] No speakers out of population of 40 (1977 SIL). South Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Salishan, Central Salish, Northern. Extinct since about 1940.
PLAUTDIETSCH (LOW GERMAN, MENNONITE GERMAN, MENNONITEN PLATT) [GRN] 80,000 first language speakers and 20,000 second language speakers in Canada (1978 Kloss and McConnell); 70,000 in Mexico, 38,200 in Paraguay, 10,000 in USA, 18,000 in Bolivia, 5,955 in Brazil, 5,763 in Belize, 1,200 in Uruguay, 140 in Argentina, 100 in Costa Rica (1974 Minnich), 100,000 in Russia and Kazakhstan (1986), 5,000 in Germany (1986). 306,000 total Plautdietsch speakers, of whom 150,000 speak it habitually. Total German mother tongue speakers in Canada 561,000 (J.A. Hawkins in B. Comrie 1988), without distinguishing dialects or languages. Southern Canada; Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Alberta, British Columbia. Indo-European, Germanic, West, Continental, Low. Not intelligible with many other Low German languages, Standard German, Pennsylvania German or Hutterite German. 110,735 or more speakers in Latin America are mainly monolingual. 50% of speakers in Canada speak Standard German and 95% speak English as second language. 95% literate. Christian. NT 1987. Bible portions 1984-1986.
POTAWATOMI (POTTAWOTOMI) [POT] 100 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 200 in USA (1990 census); 300 total speakers, out of 7,500 population including USA (1977 SIL). Southern Ontario. Algic, Algonquian, Central. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammar. Bible portions 1844.
SALISH, STRAITS (STRAITS) [STR] 30 total speakers or fewer (1990 M.D. Kinkade) out of a population of 3,000 (1977 SIL). Southeastern tip of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Also in USA. Salishan, Central Salish, Straits. Dialects: SAANICH, LUMMI, SAMISH, SOOKE, SONGISH. Most speakers of of the Saanich dialect. The Samish, Sooke, and Songish dialects are linguistically extinct. Most speakers are middle aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammars, dictionary.
SARSI (SARCEE) [SRS] 50 speakers or fewer (1991 M. Dale Kinkade), out of 600 population (1977 SIL). Alberta, near Calgary. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Sarcee. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammar.
SECHELT [SEC] 40 or fewer speakers (1990 M.D. Kinkade) out of a population of 550 (1977 SIL). British Columbia coast north of Vancouver. Salishan, Central Salish, Northern. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Grammar, dictionary. Nearly extinct.
SEKANI [SEK] 100 to 500 speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade) out of 600 population (1982 SIL). McLeod Lake and Finlay River north central British Columbia. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Beaver-Sekani. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. The majority are bilingual in English. Bible portions 1969.
SENECA [SEE] 25 in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 200 total speakers out of 8,000 population (1977 SIL). Six Nations Reserve, Ontario. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Five Nations, Seneca-Onondaga, Seneca-Cayuga. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammar, dictionary. Bible portions 1829-1874.
SHUSWAP [SHS] 500 speakers (1977 SIL) out of 6,500 population (1990 M.D. Kinkade). British Columbia, south central. Salishan, Interior Salish, Northern. Dialects: EASTERN SHUSWAP, WESTERN SHUSWAP. Most speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Language courses in Shuswap (1991). Grammars, dictionary.
SLAVEY (SLAVI, SLAVE) [SLA] 4,000 speakers out of 5,000 population (1982 SIL), including 600 Hare (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Hay River area, northern Alberta, Northwest Territories, upper and middle MacKenzie River and tributaries in northeastern British Columbia and Northwest Territories. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Canadian, Hare-Chipewyan, Hare-Slave. Dialects: SLAVEY, MOUNTAIN, HARE (NORTHERN SLAVEY), BEARLAKE. Language use is vigorous. North Slavey consists of Mountain, Hare, Bearlake dialects. 25% to 50% literate. Grammar, dictionaries. NT 1891. Bible portions 1868-1973. Work in progress.
SQUAMISH [SQU] 20 or fewer speakers (1990 M.D. Kinkade) out of a population of 2,300. Southwestern British Columbia, north of Vancouver. Salishan, Central Salish, Squamish. All speakers are middle-aged or older. Grammar, dictionary. Typology: VSO. Nearly extinct.
STONEY (STONY) [STO] 1,000 to 1,500 speakers out of 3,200 population (1987 SIL). Southern Alberta, west and northwest of Calgary, especially Morley. Siouan, Siouan Proper, Central, Mississippi Valley, Dakota. 89% lexical similarity with Assiniboine, 86% with Dakota of Manitoba, 85% with Dakota of North Dakota, 83% with Lakota. Language use is vigorous. Many children prefer English. 75% to 100% literate. Bible portions 1970.
TAGISH [TGX] 5 or fewer speakers out of a possible population of 100 (1982 SIL). Southern Yukon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tahltan-Kaska. Tagish label was also applied to inland Tlingit. Only elderly speakers left. Nearly extinct.
TAHLTAN [TAH] 40 speakers (1991 M. Dale Kinkade), out of 750 population (1977 SIL). Telegraph Creek, northwest British Columbia and other scattered locations. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tahltan-Kaska. Closely related to Kaska. Tahltan is seldom used. Only elderly speakers left (1991). Bilingual in English. Nearly extinct.
TANANA, UPPER (NABESNA) [TAU] (250 speakers; 1980 Krauss; out of 460 population in USA; 1977 SIL). Yukon Territory. Most in Alaska, USA. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tanana-Upper Kuskokwim, Tanana. Speakers are bilingual in English. Bible portions 1970-1982.
THOMPSON (NTLAKAPMUK) [THP] 500 or fewer speakers out of a population of 3,000 (1977 SIL). British Columbia, south central. Salishan, Interior Salish, Northern. Most speakers are middle-aged or older, bilingual in English. Language courses in Thompson (1991). Grammar, dictionary.
TLINGIT (THLINGET, TLINKIT) [TLI] 135 mother tongue speakers in Canada (1981 census); 1,215 in USA (1990 census); 1,350 total, out of 9,500 population including USA (1977 SIL). British Columbia, Yukon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Tlingit. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Few under 40 speak Tlingit. English is the first or second language. Grammar, dictionaries. Bible portions 1969.
TSIMSHIAN (SM'ALGYAX, TSIMPSHEAN, ZIMSHIAN, CHIMMEZYAN) [TSI] 210 or fewer mother tongue speakers in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 113 in USA (1990 census); out of 4,000 population including USA (1977 SIL). Southern Tsimshian has fewer than 10 speakers in Canada, and Coast Tsimshian fewer than 200 in Canada (1991 Kinkade). Other estimates are 500 speakers in both countries, mainly over 50 years old. Northern coast of British Columbia. Penutian, Tsimshian. Dialects: SOUTHERN TSIMSHIAN, COAST TSIMSHIAN. Several closely related dialects. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English. Grammars, dictionary. Bible portions 1885-1898.
TUSCARORA [TUS] 7 or 8 speakers in Canada (1991 M. Dale Kinkade); 30 total speakers out of 1,000 population including USA (1977 SIL). Six Nations Reserve, Ontario. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Tuscarora-Nottoway. Only elderly speakers left. Grammar, dictionary. Nearly extinct.
TUTCHONE (SELKIRK) [TUT] 450 speakers out of 1,500 population (1982 SIL). Central and southwestern Yukon. Na-Dene, Nuclear Na-Dene, Athapaskan-Eyak, Athapaskan, Tutchone. Dialects: NORTHERN TUTCHONE, SOUTHERN TUTCHONE. Most or all speakers are middle-aged or older. Bilingual in English.
WYANDOT (HURON, WYANOTTE) [WYA] Near Quebec City, Wendake Reserve. Also in USA. Iroquoian, Northern Iroquoian, Huron. Wyandot became extinct after 1961, Huron in the mid-19th century or 1912. Dictionary.
Part of the Ethnologue, 13th Edition, Barbara F. Grimes, Editor.
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